Hello, What's This Spices Blog?

No - this isn't really a stand-alone blog about herbs and spices. It's an appendix of my food blog: Aidan Brooks: Trainee Chef containing all my pages on spices. These are in a separate file because they have a different format from the main section.

That's why this looks odd - it's not meant to be read chronologically but as a series of hyperlinked articles. It would be best to check out my food blog, but you are very welcome to browse here if you want.

Spice Index

I'm pleased to announce that, after almost five years of intermittent effort, I've completed the first pass of work my spice section. I'll be doing a lot of tidying up, new research and corrections in the coming period. For more information about a given spice, click on the appropriate link:

Ajwain	Allspice	Almond	Angelica	Anise	Annatto
Asafoetida	Barberry	Basil	Bay Leaf	Bay Leaf, Indian	Bay Leaf, Indonesian
Bergamot	Boldo Leaf	Borage	Bush Tomato	Camomile	Capers
Caraway	Cardamom, Black	Cardamom, Green	Celery	Chameleon Plant	Chaste Tree
Chervil	Chicory	Chilli	Chives	Cicely	Cinnamon, Chinese
Cinnamon, Indonesian	Cinnamon, Sri Lankan	Cloves	Coconut	Coriander, Bolivian	Coriander, Common
Coriander, Long	Coriander, Vietnamese	Costmary	Cress, Garden	Cress, Water	Cumin
Cumin, Black	Curry Leaf	Damask Rose	Dill	Epazote	Fennel
Fenugreek	Fenugreek, Blue	Fingerroot	Galangale, Greater	Galangale, Lesser	Gale
Garlic	Garlic, Bear's	Ginger	Grains Of Paradise	Horseradish	Hyssop
Juniper	Kaffir Lime	Kewra	Kokum	Lavender	Lemon
Lemon Balm	Lemon Grass	Lemon Myrtle	Lemon Verbena	Lime	Liquorice
Lovage	Lovage, Black	Mace	Mahaleb Cherry	Mango	Marjoram
Mastic	Mexican Pepperleaf	Mugwort	Mustard, Black	Mustard, White	Myrtle
Nasturtium	Nigella	Nutmeg	Olive	Onion And Shallot	Orange
Oregano	Oregano, Mexican	Pandanus Leaf	Paprika	Paracress	Parsley
Pepper, Black, etc.	Pepper, Cubeb	Pepper, Long	Pepper, Negro	Pepper, Pink	Pepper, Sichuan
Pepper, Tasmanian	Pepper, Water	Perilla	Pomegranate	Poppy Seed	Pumpkin Oilseed
Purslane	Rice Paddy Herb	Rocket	Rosemary	Rue	Safflower
Saffron	Sage	Salad Burnet	Sassafras	Savory	Sesame
Southernwood	Spearmint	Star Anise	Sumac	Sweet Clover	Tamarind
Tansy	Tarragon, French	Tarragon, Mexican	Thyme	Tonka Bean	Turmeric
Vanilla	Wasabi	Wattleseed	Zedoary

Some of the photographs in this section were taken by me and others have been used under the terms of Creative Commons licensing. I would like to thank all of the copyright owners concerned and I intend to attribute all of these pictures as soon as possible. In the interim, should any copyright owner have an issue with my use of their pictures, please contact me and I will substitute them immediately.

My Spices Archive

Imagine a world without herbs and spices. Steak without pepper, pizza without oregano, carrot soup without coriander, goulash without paprika, bouillabaisse without saffron. It's too awful to contemplate. For millenia, these flavoursome plants have been so important that nations were conquered for their possession, wars fought for their control and explorers risked sailing their ships off the edge of the world for their discovery. This section of my blog is a source of information about the many wonderful herbs and spices that elevate the taste our food to a higher level. My spice tables

My spice tables list the 150-odd spices and culinary herbs in my archive and give basic information on their sensory qualities, usage, etc. Checking in one of these tables is a good place to start, with each table providing links to my individual spice profiles. If you already know which spice you want to find details for, go directly to my Spice Index where you will find pictures of each individual spice and links to their corresponding spice pages. Spice Overview is a table that lists each spice and culinary herb and provides a general summary, together with specific information on (a) botanical family, (b) main gustatory and olfactory characteristics, (c) degree of pungency, (d) main culinary uses. Botanical Families Of Spice groups them into their botanical families, under their Latin and common family names. Spices By Dominant Flavour groups the herbs and spices into those that are predominantly sweet, salty, bitter, sour or combinations of these.

Definitions Many sources use the term "spice" to refer to dried vegetative flavour additives and "herb" to refer to fresh ones. I find this confusing, because there are many non-herbal spices that are used fresh and several herbs that are used in dried form. And not all herbs have a culinary use. So what I call "spices" includes all vegetative substances that stimulate the gustatory and olfactory senses rather than provide a source of nutrition. Culinary herbs are simply a sub-group of spices, although I use the phrase "herbs and spices" to conform to common practice. Here are my definitions:

A spice is a plant substance (leaf, stem, seed, fruit, root, bark or other organic material) whose culinary purpose is to stimulate the senses of taste and smell of a food consumer, rather than to add nutritional value to the food. Spices may add nutritional value, but this is not their culinary purpose. Spices may also stimulate the visual sense as a colorant (e.g. peppercorn mix) or dye (e.g. saffron), the tactile sense as a thickener (e.g. poppy seeds) or anaesthetic (e.g. paracress) and other senses including the auditory sense, sense of balance, etc. but these are ancillary benefits (or disbenefits). Many spices also have non-culinary uses including food preservation (e.g. turmeric), medicine (e.g. liquorice), cosmetics (e.g. annatto), religious ritual (e.g. garlic), perfumery (e.g. rose) and as a recreational drug (e.g. nutmeg), but these qualities are not what defines them as spices.

A herb is a plant characterised by a non-woody stem which dies completely, or down to ground level, at the end of the growing season. A culinary herb is a herb that is employed in culinary applications for the purpose of stimulating the gustatory and/or olfactory senses. This distinguishes culinary herbs from herbs that stimulate other senses, are used for their nutritional value (vegetables, salad greens, etc.) or have medicinal, ornamental, psychotropic or other non-culinary use. As with non-herbal spices, culinary herbs may add nutritional value when used in cooking, but their status as a spice results from sensory stimulus and not from nutritional value. Not all spices are herbs, as many are derived from trees, bushes and other woody-stemmed plants, whereas herbs are by definition all non-woody.

Some herbs - in particular the alliaceous herbs (garlic, onion, shallot and chives) - are generally used simultaneously as both a foodstuff and a spice. Some herbs are occasionally found in spice tables but are excluded from mine because they don't satisfy the definition I have employed above. These are listed in this table in order to distinguish those I have ruled out from those I have yet have encountered. Spice use through the ages

The British have traditionally held the view that spices and culinary herbs are (a) something "foreign" and (b) used to cover up the taste and smell of unfresh food. The former is for the most part true, of course. As a colonist of many distant parts of the world, Britain exported many spices back to the mother country, just as the Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese did. The illustration is of Dom Vasco da Gama (1469–1524), Portuguese explorer and the first recorded person to sail directly from Europe to India. During the 17th century, British cooking - at least in the households of the wealthy - used a plethora of spices. Somehow this practice died out during the 19th century. We became inward-looking and xenophobic and made the term "foreign" synonymous with "nasty". Only in the past few decades, with mass travel and a booming restaurant trade in the new multi-ethnic Britain, has our love for herbs and spices returned. As for the "cover up" story - this is twaddle and probably reflects nothing more than the racist views of British soldiers serving in the Crimea and, later, the Indian Raj. Spices have been so rare and expensive that many wars were fought over them. Using them to cover up poor quality meat would be foolish and profligate. The substance that has been used for meat and fish preservation for millenia and still works perfectly well today is the one missing item from my list of spices - salt - which is not a spice because it is mineral and not vegetable.

For an excellent summary of the history of the spice trade, see Steenbergs Organic's A Short History of Spices.

A little "thank you" to Charlemagne At the begin of the 9th century, King Charlemagne issued an edict with the grand title: "Capitulare de Villis vel Curtis Imperii Caroli Magni" in which he defined a large number of administrative, legal and agricultural rules for the Frankish empire. At the end of the document was a large list of culinary and medical herbs that were, from that time on, to be grown in every Imperial garden.

The documents were written in Medieval Latin, which was the only language spoken and understood all over the Frankish empire. The Capitulare de Villis helped greatly in the unification of agricultural technologies across the empire and for the spread of "standard" plants and the associated knowledge of their cultivation and use. The plant list of Charlemagne was maintained throughout the Middle Ages right up to the 18th century and the "plants of Charlemagne" were grown in all monasteries where there was a suitable climate. Many culinary herbs from the Mediterranean became known in the more Northern parts of Central and West Europe. Some of them established themselves permanently in the cooler regions, where their growth required more care and effort. Examples include lovage, parsley, celery and southernwood. Other plants, however, were abandoned for climatic reasons (e.g. almond) or were replaced by alternatives (e.g. cumin). There is little doubt that we owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Charlemagne for the herbs we have today, in particular across Europe. Without the Capitulare de Villis it is likely that many herbs that we take for granted today would have died out altogether. The plants listed in the Capitulare de Villis are listed in this table, with their current botanical genus name or names and the primary use of each plant today. Most of the plants have been identified unequivocally, but some are in debate.

Many thanks to Tim O'Brien for the spice photo and to Wally Gobetz for the herb garden photo.

Spice Overview

This table provides an overview of all of the spices in my archives.

Spice	Family	Taste And Smell	Heat*	Main Culinary Uses	Summary
Ajwain	apiaceae	Thyme-like, astringent	M	Arab/Indian vegetable and fish dishes	Indian version of thyme
Allspice	myrtaceae	Pungent, aromatic, mixed	M	Sauces, marinades, sausages, pickles	Cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg and pepper in one
Almond	rosaceae	Nutty, sweet or bitter	L	Desserts, Indian biryanis	A bitter nut for savoury and sweet dishes
Angelica	apiaceae	Musky, fragrant, juniper-like	L	Desserts, cheese dips	Aromatic member of the parsley family
Anise	apiaceae	Liquorice-like, sweet	L	Salads, stews, pastries, confectionery	The classical flavour for sweets
Annatto	bixaceae	Weak, perfumed, peppery	L	Food dye, marinades, stews	An orange dye from Southern America
Asafoetida	apiaceae	Pungent, rotten, repugnant	L	Dhals, curries	An Indian spice called “devil's dung”
Barberry	berberidaceae	Sour, tart, acid	L	Jam, rice flavouring and colouring	A sour berry for jams and rice
Basil	lamiaceae	Pungent, sweet, citrus	M	Salads, sauces, stir-fries, garnish	The defining herb of Mediterranean cuisine
Bay leaf	lauraceae	Aromatic, bitter, pungent	L	Stews, pickles, sausages, bouquet garni	A classic bitter spice in Europe and elsewhere
Bay leaf, Indian	lauraceae	Aromatic, cinnamon-like	L	Curries	Aromatic leaves from North India
Bay leaf, Indonesian	myrtaceae	Aromatic, sour and astringent	L	Indonesian meat and vegetable dishes	The flavour of Bali
Bergamot	lamiaceae	Orange perfume, citrus	L	Savoury and sweet dishes, meatloaf, tea	An orange perfumed flower
Boldo leaf	monimiaceae	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like	M	Fish, sauces, gravies, pickling	The South American version of bay leaf
Borage	boraginaceae	Weak, cucumber-like	L	Salads, soups, sauces	The herb with cucumber scent
Bush tomato	solanaceae	Pungent, earthy, acidic	M-H	Stews, marinades, chutneys, sauces	Increasingly popular Aboriginal spice
Camomile	asteracaea	Strongly aromatic, apple-like	L	Salads, tea	The apple scented herb
Capers	capparaceae	Pungent, sour, astringent	M	Sauces, fish and meat dishes, pickles	Mediterranean spicy buds
Caraway	apiaceae	Strongly aromatic and warm	M	Meat and vegetable dishes, bread	The defining spice of the Alps
Cardamom, black	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, pungent, camphor-like	L	Kormas, stews	Smoky capsules from the Himalaya
Cardamom, green	zingiberaceae	Sweet and aromatic	L	Coffee, meat and rice flavouring, curries	The spice behind the Bedouins' coffee
Celery	apiaceae	Strongly aromatic, bitter-sweet	L	Soups, sauces, salads	The herb that scared the Romans
Chameleon plant	saururaceae	Aromatic, astringent, citrus	L	Salads, garnishes	A strange mixture of lemon, orange and ginger
Chaste tree	verbenaceae	Weakly aromatic, pungent, bitter	L-M	Pepper substitute, marinade	The aromatic spice of chastity
Chervil	apiaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like	L	Garnish, sauces, bouquet garni	A symbol of good French and German cookery
Chicory	asteracaea	Crisp (leaf); nutty, bitter (root)	L	Salad (leaf), coffee substitute (root)	Versatile salad, vegetable and coffee additive
Chilli	solanaceae	Pungent, fiery	M-H	Savoury dishes, pickles, some desserts	The world’s fiery pungency
Chives	alliaceae	Weakly alliaceous	L	Soups, stews, sauces, garnish, cheeses	A decoration with a delicate flavour
Cicely	apiaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like	L	Anise substitute, stewed fruit	A sweet flavour from Northern Europe
Cinnamon, Chinese	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet	L	Stews, Chinese sauces	The first cinnamon variety in the West
Cinnamon, Indonesian	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet	L	Stews, confectionery	Cinnamon grown and exported, but rarely used
Cinnamon, Sri Lankan	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet	L	Biryanis, stews, rice and tea flavouring	The world’s most popular culinary bark
Cloves	myrtaceae	Sweet, pungent, astringent	M	Stews, rice dishes, desserts, pickles	Dutch trophy from the spice islands
Coconut	arecaceae	Sweet, nutty with sour liquid	L	Curries, stews, gravies, desserts, liqueurs	The most versatile of all tropical ingredients
Coriander, Bolivian	asteracaea	Aromatic, green, citrus	L	Soups, stews, sauces, garnish	Bolivia’s version of coriander
Coriander, common	apiaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus	L	Curries, soups, salads, garnish	The world’s favourite spicy leaves
Coriander, long	apiaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus	L	Curries, soups, salads, garnish	The herbal taste of the Caribbean sun
Coriander, Vietnamese	polygonaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus	L	Soups, stews, sauces, garnish	The defining flavour of Southern Vietnam
Costmary	asteracaea	Aromatic, balsamic	None	Soups, salads, garnish, cakes, tea	Britain’s forgotten balsamic herb
Cress, garden	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent (transitory)	L-M	Salads, garnish, egg dishes, sauces	A refreshingly pungent decoration
Cress, water	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent (transitory)	L-M	Salads, garnish, cheese dishes, sauces	Like garden cress but even better
Cumin	apiaceae	Aromatic, pungent	M	Curries, stews, breads	The heart and soul of Indian cookery
Cumin, black	apiaceae	Earthy, pungent, nutty	M	Curries	An exclusive taste for the Emperor of India
Curry leaf	rutaceae	Fragrant, citrus	L	Curries	Well-known name for little-known Indian spice
Damask rose	rosaceae	Sweet, perfumed, delicate	None	Asian desserts and drink flavouring	A flower with sweet fragrance
Dill	apiaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet, anise-like	L	Soups, sauces, stews, pickles, fish, bread	The herb for pickling and stews
Epazote	amaranthaceae	Citrus, savoury, minty, petrol-like	L	Soups, salads, meat dishes	The defining spice of the Mayans
Fennel	apiaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like	L	Fish, breads, sausages, curries	A sweet flavour for spicy dishes
Fenugreek	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter, caramel	L	Pickles, curries, breads	A bitter classic everywhere except the West
Fenugreek, blue	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter, caramel	L	Cheese flavouring, stuffings, breads	The fenugreek of the Alps
Fingerroot	zingiberaceae	Gingery, camphor-like	M	Thai curries	Thai cuisine's secret spice
Galangale, greater	zingiberaceae	Warm, sweet, gingery, pine-like	M	Thai and Indonesian curries	A taste as exotic as the Far East
Galangale, lesser	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, gingery, camphor-like	M	Malaysian/Indonesian/Sichuan curries	The mysterious flavouring of Indonesia
Gale	myricaceae	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like	L	Soups, sauces, vegetable stews, beers	The beer spice of the Middle Ages
Garlic	alliaceae	Hot, alliaceous	L-M	Wide savoury use from salads to curries	Best friend of the onion but not of the vampire
Garlic, bear's	aliaceae	Warm, alliaceous, chive-like	L-M	Cheese flavouring, soups, sauces, salads	A culinary tip for gourmets
Ginger	zingiberaceae	Warm, pungent, citrus	M-H	Savoury and sweet dishes worldwide	A spice loved for pungency and fragrance
Grains of paradise	zingiberaceae	Spicy, warm and bitter	M	Stews, sausages, vegetable dishes	Peppery grains from Africa's West Coast
Horseradish	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent, transitory	M-H	Relish for meat dishes	Nature's lachrymatory agent
Hyssop	lamiaceae	Aromatic and slightly bitter	None	Soups, bouquet garni	Fragrant flowers with bitter taste
Juniper	cupressaceae	Aromatic, sweet, pungent	L	Pickles, salads, stuffing, venison dishes	Used in gin and fermented cabbage
Kaffir lime	rutaceae	Aromatic, citrus	L	Soups, curries, fish and poultry dishes	Harsh lemon fragrance from Thai kitchens
Kewra	pandanaceae	Sweet, perfumed, fruity	None	Confectionery, rice dishes, desserts	The rose fragrance of North Indian cuisine
Kokum	clusiaceae	Sweet and sour, tamarind-like	L	Tamarind substitute, curries, syrups	The sweet acidic taste of South India
Lavender	lamiaceae	Aromatic, perfumed, bitter-sweet	L	Meat and vegetable dishes, desserts, teas	The summer flower fragrance of Provence
Lemon	rutaceae	Aromatic, refreshing, sour, citrus	L	Desserts, sauces, fish dishes, pickles	Cooking’s most important souring agent
Lemon balm	lamiaceae	Lemon-like	L	Lemongrass substitute, sauces, desserts	Bees' food with a lemon aroma
Lemon grass	poaceae	Lemon-like with rose hint	L	South/SE Asian savoury cooking	Refreshing citrus odour from South-East Asia
Lemon myrtle	myrtaceae	Intensively lemon-like, warm	L-M	Australian savoury dishes	A fragrance more like lemon than lemon
Lemon verbena	verbenaceae	Intense, pure, lemon-like	L	Confectionery, desserts, garnish	Leaves with lemon fragrance from S. America
Lime	rutaceae	Aromatic, lemon-like	L	Asian sauces, fish dishes, rice flavouring	The tropical relative of lemon
Liquorice	fabaceae	Sweet, warm, anise-like	L	Confectionery, Chinese sauce	A medical plant with culinary applications
Lovage	apiaceae	Aromatic, celery-like	L	Pickles, sauces, stocks, potato dishes	The Mediterranean celery herb
Lovage, black	apiaceae	Aromatic, pungent, celery-like	M	Salads, soups, stews, celeriac substitute	Alexander the Great’s favourite herb
Mace	myristicaceae	Warm, sharp, sweet	L	Desserts, curries	The second spice of the nutmeg fruit
Mahaleb cherry	rosaceae	Aromatic, bitter	L	Confectionery, pastries, cheese dishes	An exotic spice from Turkey
Mango	anacardiaceae	Sour, astringent, resinous	L	Indian marinade, desserts, sauces	One of the world's best fruits and more
Marjoram	lamiaceae	Aromatic, slightly bitter	L	Sausages, vegetable/fish dishes, stews	Roman aphrodisiac that flavours sausages
Mastic	anacardiaceae	Mild, resinous, anise-like	L	Sausages, desserts, confectionery	The Greek chewing gum spice
Mexican pepperleaf	piperaceae	Pungent, aromatic, nutmeg-like	M	Mexican meat and fish dishes, sauces	The anise flavouring for Mexico's sauces
Mugwort	asteracaea	Aromatic and bitter	L	Goose stuffing, fish/meat dishes, salads	A bitter flavour for special occasions
Mustard, black	brassicaceae	Sharp, pungent, nutty	L-H	Indian vegetable/meat dishes and pickles	The subtle mustard used from Dijon to Goa
Mustard, white	brassicaceae	Sharp, pungent	M-H	Mustard paste, pickles, stews	The Western mustard favourite
Myrtle	myrtaceae	Aromatic, camphor-like, bitter	L	Smoking meat and fish, stuffings	An aromatic firewood
Nasturtium	tropeolaceae	Volatile aromatic and pungent	L	Cheese spreads, salads, garnish, pickles	A refreshing pungency long forgotten
Nigella	ranunculaceae	Aromatic, bitter, oregano-like	L	Vegetable dishes, breads	The taste of Turkish bread
Nutmeg	myristicaceae	Sweet, warm, nutty	L	Desserts, curries, cheese/vegetable dishes	Versatile fruit spice for both savoury and sweet
Olive	oleaceae	Floral, fruity, bitter	L	Cooking oil, pickles, sauces, vegetable dishes	The definition of Mediterranean cuisine
Onion and shallot	alliaceae	Pungent, mellow, sweet	L-M	Pickles, curries, meat/vegetable dishes, sauces	The world’s most used flavouring
Orange	rutaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet-sour	L	Stews, salads, desserts, confectionery, tea	A sweet-sour juice and a bitter aromatic peel
Oregano	lamiaceae	Aromatic, warm and slightly bitter	L	Pizza, sauces, cheese/fish dishes, pickles	The defining flavour of pizza
Oregano, Mexican	verbenaceae	Aromatic, warm and slightly bitter	L	"Tex-Mex" dishes	The oregano of chilli con carne
Pandanus leaf	pandanaceae	Slightly nutty and hay-like	L	Indian curries, SE Asian rice and desserts	Mouth-watering and nutty leaves
Paprika	solanaceae	Sweet, aromatic, pungent	L-M	Goulash, stews, sausages, salads	Red, variably sweet/hot temper of Hungary
Paracress	asteracaea	Salty to pungent and anaesthetic	M	Brazilian soups, meat and fish dishes	Pretty flowers that tickle the palate
Parsley	apiaceae	Aromatic, green	None	Sauces, soups, fish/vegetable dishes, garnish	The world’s most popular green decoration
Pepper, black, white, green, red	piperaceae	Aromatic and pungent	L-H	Global savoury dishes and some desserts	Without doubt, the king of spices
Pepper, cubeb	piperaceae	Pungent, bitter, camphor-like	L-M	North African meat dishes	Bitter and pungent grains nearly forgotten
Pepper, long	piperaceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet tones	L-M	Cheese dishes, sauces, pickles, stews	The first pepper that made its way to Europe
Pepper, negro	annonaceae	Pungent, aromatic, bitter, smoky	L-M	Tropical African stews and other dishes	An African pepper surrogate almost forgotten
Pepper, pink	anacardiaceae	Aromatic, sweet, juniper-like	L	Fish and vegetable dishes	A pepper that is growing in popularity
Pepper, Sichuan	rutaceae	Aromatic, pungent, anaesthetic	L-M	Various Asian savoury dishes and pickles	Aromatic pungency from China's highlands
Pepper, Tasmanian	winteraceae	Sweet, pungent, anaesthetic	M	Australian savoury dishes	Pungency from down under
Pepper, water	polygonaceae	Bitter, pungent, anaesthetic	M	Soups, salads, fish dishes, garnish	A pungent herb for Japanese cookery
Perilla	lamiaceae	Aromatic, astringent, anise-like	L	Soups, garnish, pickles, fish dishes	A fragrant herb in Japan
Pomegranate	punicaceae	Fresh, sweet-sour	None	Vegetable dishes, marinades, cakes	The sour raisins of North India
Poppy seed	papaveraceae	Nutty, aromatic	L	Confectionery, desserts, curries, salads	Secret of opium and yeast dumplings
Pumpkin oilseed	cucurbitaceae	Intense, nutty, aromatic	None	Sauces, oil, spreads, soups, breads	The nutty seed oil from Mexico to Styria
Purslane	portulacaceae	Salty, green, fresh	None	Soups, stews, cold vegetable dishes, garnish	The little known herb of Western Asia
Rice paddy herb	scrophulariaceae	Aromatic, citrus, cumin-like	None	Fish dishes, soups, Vietnamese curries	The lemon-scented herb of the rice fields
Rocket	brassicaceae	Pungent, nutty, petrol-like	L	Salads, garnish, pasta, risotto	Europe’s trendy salad green
Rosemary	lamiaceae	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like	None	Fish, lamb, poultry and vegetable dishes	The Mediterranean partner for roast lamb
Rue	rutaceae	Aromatic, bitter, pungent	L-M	Meat/egg/cheese dishes, coffee flavouring	Ancient Rome’s favourite herb
Safflower	asteracaea	Weak and herbaceous	None	Food dye, stews, garnish	A cheap and inferior substitute for saffron
Saffron	iridaceae	Fragrant and bitter	None	Desserts, confectionery, seafood, curries	The most expensive spice in the world
Sage	lamiaceae	Aromatic and bitter	None	Italian meat, poultry and noodle dishes	The key herb of contemporary Italian cookery
Salad burnet	rosaceae	Crisp, fresh, cucumber-like	None	Salads, garnish, fish/vegetable dishes, soups	A ubiquitous salad herb
Sassafras	lauraceae	Weak, fresh, citrus	None	Creole and Cajun dishes, drink flavouring	The heart of Creole cuisine
Savory	lamiaceae	Aromatic, summery, pungent	L-M	Legume/vegetable dishes, sausages, garnish	A perfect partner for beans
Sesame	pedaliaceae	Nutty, earthy	None	Margarine, oil, soups, sauces, garnish	As incredibly versatile grain
Southernwood	asteracaea	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like	None	Meat dishes, bouquet garni	A flavour almost forgotten
Spearmint	lamiaceae	Aromatic, pungent, cooling	L	Lamb/vegetable dishes, desserts, pastries	The original chewing gum flavour
Star anise	illiciaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like	L	Meat/vegetable dishes, stews, desserts	Decorative spice of Chinese and Thai cuisine
Sumac	anacardiaceae	Sour, fruity, astringent	L	Kebabs, rice and vegetable dishes	Turkey’s purple powder with a sour flavour
Sweet clover	fabaceae	Aromatic, sweet, hay-like	L	Cheeses, soups, stews marinades, teas	The herbal secret of Swiss cheese
Tamarind	fabaceae	Sour, astringent, fruity	L	Meat /legume dishes, soups and sauces	A sour and fruity spice of Asian cuisines
Tansy	asteracaea	Bitter, citrus, camphor-like	None	Garnish, desserts, egg dishes, cakes	One of Britain’s oldest herbs
Tarragon, French/ Russian	asteracaea	Anise-like, aromatic or bitter	None	Poultry/vegetable dishes, sauce, salad dressing	Used in mustard, but waiting to be discovered
Tarragon, Mexican	asteracaea	Intense, aromatic, anise-like	None	Poultry dishes, sauces, bouquet garni	The yellow flower with anise scent
Thyme	lamiaceae	Strongly aromatic, pungent, minty	L	Fish/meat/vegetable/ egg dishes, soups	A dream of Southern France
Tonka bean	fabaceae	Aromatic, sweet, hay-like	None	Cakes, desserts, sauces	The beans with the fragrance of woodruff
Turmeric	zingiberaceae	Warm, acrid, bitter	L	Curries, food dye	The holy herbal dye of Ancient India
Vanilla	orchidaceae	Fragrant, sweet, delicate	L	Desserts, chocolate, milk drinks, ice cream	Ice cream’s Aztec heritage
Wasabi	brassicaceae	Aromatic, pungent, bitter	M	Japanese fish and vegetable dishes	Japan's spice for raw fish
Wattleseed	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet, nutty	L	Coffee substitute, barbecue seasoning	The chicory of Aboriginal Australia
Zedoary	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like	M	Thai curries, pickles	The spice that shows the merits of bitterness

Spices By Dominant Flavour

This table groups the spices into their most dominant characteristic flavour. Since I originally developed this table, I've concluded that this old 5-flavour model is inadequate. I intend to modify the table to create a 7-flavour model including "pungent" and "astringent" as specific flavours.

Dominant Taste	Spice	Family Latin Name	Taste And Smell
Bitter	Ajwain	apiaceae	Thyme-like, astringent
	Bay Leaf	lauraceae	Aromatic, bitter, pungent
	Chaste Tree	verbenaceae	Weakly aromatic, pungent, bitter
	Chicory	asteracaea	Fresh, crisp (leaf); warm, nutty, bitter (root)
	Cumin	apiaceae	Aromatic, pungent
	Hyssop	lamiaceae	Aromatic and slightly bitter
	Lovage	apiaceae	Aromatic, celery-like
	Lovage, black	apiaceae	Aromatic, pungent, celery-like
	Mahaleb cherry	rosaceae	Aromatic, bitter
	Marjoram	lamiaceae	Aromatic, slightly bitter
	Mugwort	asteracaea	Aromatic and bitter
	Nasturtium	tropaeolaceae	Volatile aromatic and pungent
	Nigella	ranunculaceae	Aromatic, bitter, oregano-like
	Oregano	lamiaceae	Aromatic, warm and slightly bitter
	Oregano, Mexican	verbenaceae	Aromatic, warm and slightly bitter
	Pepper, black, white etc.	piperaceae	Aromatic and pungent
	Pepper, negro	annonaceae	Pungent, aromatic, bitter, smoky
	Pepper, Sichuan	rutaceae	Aromatic, pungent, woody, anaesthetic
	Pepper, water	polygonaceae	Bitter, pungent, woody, anaesthetic
	Rice paddy herb	scrophulariaceae	Aromatic, citrus, cumin-like
	Rue	rutaceae	Aromatic, bitter, pungent
	Safflower	asteracaea	Weak and herbaceous
	Saffron	iridaceae	Fragrant and bitter
	Sage	lamiaceae	Aromatic and bitter
	Turmeric	zingiberaceae	Warm, acrid, bitter
	Wasabi	brassicaceae	Aromatic, pungent, bitter
Bitter-Sweet	Allspice	myrtaceae	Pungent, aromatic, spicy and mixed
	Almond	rosaceae	Nutty, sweet or bitter
	Angelica	apiaceae	Musky, fragrant, juniper-like
	Annatto	bixaceae	Weak, perfumed, peppery
	Asafoetida	apiaceae	Pungent, rotten, repugnant
	Celery	apiaceae	Strongly aromatic, bitter-sweet
	Chilli	solanaceae	Pungent, fiery
	Dill	apiaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet, anise-like
	Fenugreek	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter, caramel
	Fenugreek, blue	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter, caramel
	Grains of paradise	zingiberaceae	Spicy, warm and slightly bitter
	Horseradish	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent but transitory
	Lavender	lamiaceae	Aromatic, perfumed, bitter-sweet
	Mace	myristicaceae	Warm, sharp, sweet
	Mustard, black	brassicaceae	Sharp, pungent, nutty
	Mustard, white	brassicaceae	Sharp, pungent
	Olive	oleaceae	Floral, fruity, bitter
	Orange	rutaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet
	Tarragon, French/Russian	asteracaea	Anise-like, aromatic (French), bitter (Russian)
	Thyme	Lamiaceae	Strongly aromatic, pungent, minty
	Wattleseed	fabaceae	Aromatic, bitter-sweet, nutty
Bitter-Sour	Boldo Leaf	monimiaceae	Aromatic, bitter, camphor-like
	Cardamom, Black	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, pungent, camphor-like
	Fingerroot	zingiberaceae	Gingery, camphor-like
	Galangale, lesser	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, gingery, camphor-like
	Gale	myricaceae	Aromatic, bitter, astringent, camphor-like
	Myrtle	myrtaceae	Aromatic, camphor-like, unpleasantly bitter
	Pepper, cubeb	piperaceae	Pungent, aromatic, bitter, camphor-like
	Rosemary	lamiaceae	Aromatic, bitter, resinous, camphor-like
	Southernwood	asteracaea	Aromatic, bitter, citrus, camphor-like
	Tansy	asteracaea	Aromatic, bitter, citrus, camphor-like
	Zedoary	zingiberaceae	Aromatic, gingery, bitter, camphor-like
Sweet	Anise	apiaceae	Liquorice-like, sweet
	Bay Leaf, Indian	lauraceae	Aromatic, cinnamon-like
	Borage	boraginaceae	Weak, cucumber-like
	Caraway	apiaceae	Strongly aromatic and warm
	Cardamom, Green	zingiberaceae	Sweet and aromatic
	Chervil	apiaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like
	Chives	alliaceae	Weakly alliaceous
	Cicely	apiaceae	Strong, sweet, aromatic, anise-like
	Cinnamon, Sri Lankan	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet
	Cinnamon, Chinese	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet
	Cinnamon, Indonesian	lauraceae	Aromatic, pungent, sweet
	Coconut	arecaceae	Sweet, nutty with sour liquid
	Costmary	asteracaea	Aromatic, balsamic
	Cumin, Black	apiaceae	Earthy, pungent, nutty
	Damask Rose	rosaceae	Sweet, perfumed, delicate
	Fennel	apiaceae	Sweet, aromatic, anise-like
	Galangale, greater	zingiberaceae	Warm, sweet, gingery, pine-like
	Garlic	alliaceae	Hot, alliaceous
	Garlic, bear's	alliaceae	Warm, alliaceous, chive-like
	Juniper	cupressaceae	Aromatic, sweet, slightly pungent
	Kewra	pandanaceae	Sweet, perfumed, fruity
	Liquorice	fabaceae	Sweet, warm, anise-like
	Mastic	anacardiaceae	Mild, delicate, resinous, anise-like
	Mexican pepperleaf	piperaceae	Pungent, aromatic, nutmeg-like, peppery
	Nutmeg	myristicaceae	Sweet, warm, nutty
	Onion and shallot	alliaceae	Pungent, mellow, sweet
	Pandanus leaf	pandanaceae	Slightly nutty and hay-like
	Paprika	solanaceae	Sweet, aromatic, variable pungency
	Parsley	apiaceae	Aromatic, green
	Pepper, long	piperaceae	Aromatic and pungent with sweet tones
	Pepper, pink	anacardiaceae	Aromatic, sweet, juniper-like
	Pepper, Tasmanian	winteraceae	Aromatic, sweet, pungent, anaesthetic
	Poppy seed	papaveraceae	Nutty, aromatic
	Pumpkin oilseed	cucurbitaceae	Intense, nutty, aromatic
	Rocket	brassicaceae	Aromatic, pungent, nutty, petroleum-like
	Salad burnet	rosaceae	Crisp, fresh, cucumber-like
	Savory	lamiaceae	Aromatic, summery, pungent
	Sesame	pedaliaceae	Nutty, earthy
	Spearmint	lamiaceae	Aromatic, pungent, cooling
	Star anise	illiciaceae	Warm, sweet, aromatic, anise-like
	Sweet clover	fabaceae	Aromatic, sweet, hay-like
	Tarragon, Mexican	asteracaea	Intense, aromatic, anise-like
	Tonka Bean	fabaceae	Aromatic, sweet, hay-like
	Vanilla	orchidaceae	Fragrant, sweet, delicate
Sour	Barberry	berberidaceae	Sour, tart, acid
	Bay Leaf, Indonesian	myrtaceae	Aromatic, sour and astringent
	Capers	capparaceae	Pungent, spicy, sour, astringent
	Chameleon Plant	saururaceae	Aromatic, astringent, citrus
	Coriander, Common	apiaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus
	Coriander, Bolivian	asteracaea	Aromatic, green, citrus
	Coriander, Long	apiaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus
	Coriander, Vietnamese	polygonaceae	Aromatic, nutty, citrus
	Curry Leaf	rutaceae	Fragrant, citrus
	Ginger	zingiberaceae	Warm, pungent, citrus
	Kaffir Lime	rutaceae	Aromatic, citrus
	Lemon	rutaceae	Aromatic, refreshing, sour, citrus
	Lemon balm	lamiaceae	Lemon-like
	Lemon myrtle	myrtaceae	Intensively lemon-like, warm
	Lemon verbena	verbenaceae	Intense, pure, lemon-like
	Lime	rutaceae	Aromatic, lemon-like
	Mango	anacardiaceae	Sour, astringent, resinous
	Sassafras	lauraceae	Weak, fresh, citrus
	Sumac	anacardiaceae	Sour, fruity, astringent
	Tamarind	fabaceae	Sour, astringent, fruity
Sweet-Sour	Basil	lamiaceae	Variously pungent, sweet, warm, citrous
	Bergamot	lamiaceae	Orange perfume, citrus
	Bush Tomato	solanaceae	Pungent, piquant, earthy, acidic
	Camomile	asteracaea	Strongly aromatic, apple-like
	Cloves	myrtaceae	Sweet, pungent, astringent
	Epazote	amaranthaceae	Citrus, savory, minty, petroleum-like
	Kokum	clusiaceae	Sweet and sour, fruity, tamarind-like
	Lemon Grass	poaceae	Lemon-like with rose hint
	Perilla	lamiaceae	Aromatic, astringent, anise-like
	Pomegranate	punicaceae	Fresh, sweet-sour
Salty	Cress, Garden	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent (transitory)
	Cress, Water	brassicaceae	Aromatic and pungent (transitory)
	Paracress	asteracaea	Salty changing to pungent and anaesthetic
	Purslane	portulacaceae	Salty, green, fresh

Botanical Families Of Spice

Spices fall into the following botanical families.

Latin Name	Common Name	Spice
alliaceae	Onion	Bear's garlic, Chives, Garlic, Onion and shallot
amaranthaceae	Amaranth	Epazote
anacardiaceae	Cashew	Mango, Mastic, Pink pepper, Sumac
annonaceae	Custard apple	Negro pepper
apiaceae	Parsley	Ajwain, Angelica, Anise, Asafoetida, Black cumin, Black lovage, Caraway, Celery, Chervil, Cicely, Common coriander, Cumin, Dill, Fennel, Long coriander, Lovage, Parsley
arecaceae	Palm	Coconut
asteracaea	Daisy	Bolivian coriander, Camomile, Chicory, Costmary, French and Russian tarragon, Mexican tarragon, Mugwort, Paracress, Safflower, Southernwood, Tansy
berberidaceae	Barberry	Barberry
bixaceae	Achiote	Annatto
boraginaceae	Borage	Borage
brassicaceae	Cabbage	Black mustard, Garden cress, Horseradish, Rocket, Wasabi, Water cress, White mustard
capparaceae	Caper	Capers
clusiaceae	St. John's wort	Kokum
cucurbitaceae	Gourd	Pumpkin oilseed
cupressaceae	Cypress	Juniper
fabaceae	Bean	Blue fenugreek, Fenugreek, Liquorice, Sweet clover, Tamarind, Tonka bean, Wattleseed
illiciaceae	Star anise	Star anise
iridaceae	Iris	Saffron
lamiaceae	Mint	Basil, Bergamot, Hyssop, Lavender, Lemon balm, Marjoram, Oregano, Perilla, Rosemary, Sage, Savory, Spearmint, Thyme
lauraceae	Laurel	Bay leaf, Chinese cinnamon, Sri Lankan cinnamon, Indian bay leaf, Indonesian cinnamon, Sassafras
monimiaceae	Monimia	Boldo Leaf
myricaceae	Wax-myrtle	Gale
myristicaceae	Nutmeg	Mace, Nutmeg
myrtaceae	Myrtle	Allspice, Cloves, Indonesian bay leaf, Lemon myrtle, Myrtle
oleaceae	Olive	Olive
orchidaceae	Orchid	Vanilla
pandanaceae	Screwpine	Kewra, Pandanus leaf
papaveraceae	Poppy	Poppy seed
pedaliaceae	Sesame	Sesame
piperaceae	Pepper	Black (white, green and red) pepper, Cubeb pepper, Long pepper, Mexican pepperleaf
poaceae	Grass	Lemon grass
polygonaceae	Knotweed	Vietnamese coriander, Water pepper
portulacaceae	Purslane	Purslane
punicaceae	Pomegranate	Pomegranate
ranunculaceae	Buttercup	Nigella
rosaceae	Rose	Almond, Damask rose, Mahaleb cherry, Salad burnet
rutaceae	Citrus	Curry leaf, Kaffir Lime, Lemon, Lime, Orange, Rue, Sichuan pepper
saururaceae	Lizard-tail	Chameleon plant
scrophulariaceae	Figwort	Rice paddy herb
solanaceae	Nightshade	Bush tomato, Chilli, Paprika
tropaeolaceae	Nasturtium	Nasturtium
verbenaceae	Verbena	Chaste tree, Lemon verbena, Mexican oregano
winteraceae	Winter's bark	Tasmanian Pepper
zingiberaceae	Ginger	Black cardamom, Fingerroot, Ginger, Grains of paradise, Greater galangale, Green cardamom, Lesser galangale, Turmeric, Zedoary

Herbs Excluded From The List

The following herbs appear in some spice lists but are not included here as they do not satisfy the definition of a spice.

Herb	Genus	Usage
Agrimony	agrimonia eupatoria	Herbal medicine and narcoleptic
Bison grass	hierochloe odorata	Alcoholic drinks and herbal medicine
Caltrop	tribulus terrestris	Herbal medicine and supplements
Candlenut	aleurites moluccana	Herbal medicine and thickening agent
Damiana	turnera diffusa	Herbal medicine and psychotropic drug
Dandelion	taraxacum officinale	Salad green and herbal medicine
Danewort	sambucus ebulus	Herbal medicine
Devil's claw	harpagophytum procumbens	Herbal medicine
Elderberry	sambucus racemosa	Wine, cakes and herbal medicine, toxic raw
Evening Primrose	oenothera biennis	Wine and cakes, contains allergens
Eyebright	euphrasia officinalis	Herbal medicine
Green tea	camellia sinensis	Drink and herbal medicine
Hawthorn	crataegus pinnatifida	Fruits and herbal medicine
Jiaogulan	gynostemma pentaphyllum	Herbal medicine
Marshmallow	althaea officinalis	Herbal medicine
Meltoil	achillea milletolium	Herbal medicine
Milk Thistle	silybum marianum	Herbal medicine
Mullien	verbascum thapsus	Herbal medicine
Orache	atriplex hortensis	Leaf vegetable
Orris	iris germanica	Perfume and pot pourri, unsafe for ingestion
Pot marigold	calendula officinalis	Salad garnish and herbal medicine
Primrose	primula vulgaris and others	Salad garnish and herbal medicine
Sorrel	rumex scutatus	Salad green and thickener
St John's wort	hypericum perforatum	Herbal medicine
Stinging nettle	urtica dioica	Cooked green and herbal medicine
Sweet Flag	acorus calamus	Herbal medicine and psychotropic drug
Valerian	valeriana officinalis	Herbal medicine
Wild strawberry	fragaria vesca	Fruit and drink flavouring
Woodruff	asperula odorata	Alcoholic drinks, unsafe for other ingestion

Capitulare Table

The plants recorded in Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis are listed in the following table. The linked entries are those plants that are still in use as culinary herbs to this date and the links connect directly to their entries in my spices database.

C. de V. Name	Latin Name	Common Name	Primary Use
abrotanum	artemisia abrotanum	southernwood/herb royal/lad's love	spice
adripias	atriplex hortense	orache/mountain spinach	food
alia	allium sativum	garlic	spice/food
amandalarios	prunus dulcis	almond	spice/food
ameum	meum athamanticum/ammi maius	baldmoney/spignel/bishop's weed	spice
anesum	pimpinella anisum	anise/aniseseed/pimpernell	spice/food
anetum	anethum graveolens	dill	spice
apium	apium graveolens	celery	spice/food
ascalonicas	allium ascalonicum	shallot	spice/food
avellanarios	corylus avellana	hazelnut	spice/food
betas	beta vulgaris	beet	spice/food
blidas	amaranthus blitum	slender amaranth	spice/food
britlas	allium schoenoprasum	chives	spice/food
cardones	cynara cardunculus/dipsacus sativus/d. fullonum	cardoon/Fuller's teasel	medical herb
careium	carum carvi	caraway	spice/food
carvitas	daucus carota	carrot	food
castanearios	castanea sativa	chestnut	food
caulos	brassica oleracea	wild cabbage	food
cepas	allium cepa	onion	spice/food
ceresarios	prunus cerasus/prunus avium	sour cherry/sweet cherry	spice/food
cerfolium	anthriscus cerefolium/scandix cerefolium	chervil	spice
cicerum italicum	cicer arietinum	chick pea	food
ciminum	cuminum cyminum	cumin	spice
coloquentidas	bryonia alba/citrullus colocynthis	white bryony/bitter cucumber	medical herb
coriandrum	coriandrum sativum	coriander	spice
costum	balsamita vulgaris	costmary/yellow feverfew	spice/medical herb
cotoniarios	cydonia oblonga/cydonia vulgaris	quince	food
cucumere	cucumis sativus	cucumber	food
cucurbitas	cucurbita lagenaria/cucurbita pepo	bottle gourd	food
diptamnum	dictamnus albus	Burning bush	medical herb
dragantea	artemisia dracunculus/polygonum bistorta	tarragon/snake weed	spice
eruca alba	eruca sativa	rocket	spice/food
fabas maiores	vicia faba	broad bean/fava bean	food
fasiolum	vigna unguiculata/dolichos lab	black eyed pea/hyacinth bean pea	food
febrefugiam	erythrea centaurium/tanacetum parthenium	centaury/feverfew	medical herb
fenicolum	foeniculum vulgare/anethum fenicolum	fennel	spice
fenigrecum	trigonella foenum-graecum	fenugreek	spice
ficus	ficus carica	fig	food
git	nigella sativa	nigella	spice
gladiolum	gladiolus italicus/iris germanica	purple flag iris/bearded iris	ornamental/medical herb
intubas	cichorium intybus	chicory/endive/wild succory	food
iovis	sempervivum tectorum/iovis barbam	house leek/hens and chicks/Jupiter's beard	food
lacteridas	euphorbia lathyris	caper spurge	medical herb
lactucas	lactuca sativa/lactuca virosa	lettuce/wild lettuce	food
lauros	laurus nobilis	bay leaf/bay laurel	spice
levisticum	levisticum officinale/ligusticum mutellina	lovage/mountain lovage	spice
lilium	lilium candidum	madonna lily/white lily	ornamental
malorum	malus domestica	apple	food
malvas	malva sylvestris/alcea rosea	common mallow	food
mentam	mentha spicata/mentha crispa	spearmint	spice/medical herb
mentastrum	mentha silvestris/mentha longifolia	horsemint	ritual/medical herb
mespilarios	mespilus germanica	medlar	food
mismalvas	althaea officinalis	marsh mallow	medical herb
morarios	morus nigra	black mulberry	food
nasturtium	nasturtium officinale/lepidum sativum	water cress	spice/food
neptam	nepeta cataria	catmint	medical herb
nucarios	juglans regia	English walnut	food
olisatum	smyrnium olusatrum/angelica archangelica	angelica/Alexanders/verbascum	food/medical herb
papaver	papaver somniferum	garden poppy/opium poppy	spice/medical herb
parduna	arctium lappa	great burdock	food/medical herb
pastenacas	pastinaca sativa	parsnip	food
pepones	cucumis chate/cucumis melo	chate melon/musk melon	food
persicarios	amygdalus persica/prunus persica	peach	food
petresilinum	apium petroselinum/petroselinum crispum	parsley	spice
pinos	pinus pinea	stone pine	food
pirarios	pyrus	pear	food
pisos mauriscos	pisum sativum/vicia narbonensis/pisum arvense	garden pea	food
pomarios	citrus aurantium	Seville orange	food/spice
porros	allium porrum	leek	food
prunarios	prunus domestica	plum	food
puledium	mentha pulegium	pennyroyal	medical herb
radices	raphanus sativus	spanish radish	food
ravacaulos	brassica rapa/brassica caulorapa	kohlrabi/turnip	food
ros marinum	rosmarinus officinalis	rosemary	spice
rosas	rosa canina/rosa centifolia	dog rose/Provence rose/pale rose	ornamental/food
rutam	ruta graveolens	rue	spice
salviam	salvia officinalis	sage	spice
satureiam	satureia hortensis	savory	spice
savinam	juniperus sabina	savine juniper	ornamental
sclareiam	salvia sclarea	sage/clary	food/medical herb
silum	laserpitium siler	laserwort/sermountain	medical herb
sinape	sinapis nigra/sinapis alba	black mustard/white mustard	spice
sisimbrium	mentha aquatica	water mint	ornamental/medical herb
solsequiam	heliotropium europaeum/calendula officinalis	heliotrope/marigold	ornamental/medical herb
sorbarios	sorbus domestica	service tree	food
squillam	scilla maritima	sea squill	medical herb
tanazitam	tanacetum vulgare	tansy	spice/medical herb
unions	allium ursinum/allium fistulosum	bear's garlic/wild garlic/Welsh onion	spice/food
vulgigina	asarum europaeum	hazelwort/European wild ginger	medical herb
warentiam	rubia tinctorum	ground-madder/Madder	dye

Ajwain

Ajwain is a spice unfamiliar to Europe so I've never cooked with it, although I've probably experienced it in Indian restaurant dishes.

Ajwain plant	Ajwain fruits	Dried ajwain fruits

Species:	Trachyspermum ammi, t. copticum, carum copticum.
Origin:	Egypt and Eastern Mediterranean.
Source:	The main cultivation areas are Iran and India.
Used Part:	Small, caraway-like fruits (sometimes incorrectly called "seeds").
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Bitter. Similar to thyme, but stronger, less subtle and more pungent.
Etymology:	"Ajwain" is the Romanised spelling of the Hindi ajvain which can be traced back to the Sanskrit word for "Greek". Most Indo-European languages have similar names, although the spelling is sometimes varied, e.g. Dutch ajowan, German adiowan. Some European and Western Asian languages relate ajwain to Egypt, e.g. Turkish Mısır anason "Egyptian anise" or Finnish Koptilainen kumina "Coptic caraway".
	The Arabic name kamun al-muluki means "royal cumin", a term also used for the rare Indian spice black cumin.
	Some names for ajwain reflect the medicinal use of the plant and in particular its thymol content, e.g. graines de thymol.
	The etymology of the English name "bishop's weed" is unknown and this name should best be avoided as it is also used for other plants of the apiaceae family, e.g. aegopodium podagraria "ground elder" and ammi visnaga "toothpickweed". The English name "lovage seeds" is also a false reference, as is the Slovak name Ligurčekové semeno. Genus name trachyspermum is a Latin composite for "rough-seeded". Species name ammi is a Latinised reference to the alternative botanical name carum copticum "Coptic caraway".
Uses:	Ajwain is uncommon in Europe and is used mostly in Central Asia, the Punjab and Gujarat. It also enjoys popularity in the Arab world and is found in the Ethiopian spice mixture berbere. The strong aroma of ajwain is enhanced by roasting or frying and it goes well with potatoes or fish, although legumes are the most important field of application.
	Indian vegetarian dishes are commonly flavoured with ghee (perfumed butter fat) containing ajwain. As with most aromatic spice compounds, ajwain is lipophilic and dissolves much better in fat than in water. Thus, frying in ghee not only enhances the fragrance due to the high temperature but also extracts the flavour into the fat, allowing it to be dispersed throughout the food. Tadka dhal, a typical lentil recipe, starts with dried and washed lentils cooked with turmeric until tender. The lentil puree is then flavoured using salt and a tadka, a mixture of spices fried in ghee. Cumin, dill and ajwain seeds are fried until they turn brown and evolve a strong aroma, garlic or asafoetida (and possibly grated ginger) are added and after some more frying the tadka is poured over the cooked lentils. In South Indian cuisine, tadka-like preparations are applied to dried legumes and also to green vegetables and boiled rice.
	Ajwain is much used as a medical plant in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, mainly as a remedy for diseases of the digestive tract. In the West, the ajwain extract thymol is used in medicines for cough and throat irritation.

Allspice

Allspice, or pimenta, is the sort of spice that you find hanging around in any British spice cupboard, including mine. But most people rarely if ever use it, except perhaps for pickling. Nowadays, there are so many great recipes using this spice.

Allspice tree	Allspice leaves and immature fruits	Dried allspice fruits	Ground allspice

Species:	Pimenta officinalis.
Origin:	Caribbean.
Source:	Jamaica (main exporter), also Mexico and Honduras (inferior quality).
Used Part:	Unripe and dried fruits. In countries of origin the fresh leaves, known as "West Indian bay leaf", are also used for cooking or smoking meat. Mediterranean bay leaves are an inappropriate substitute. Essential oil from the leaves ("West Indian bay oil") is important in the production of sausages.
Family:	Myrtaceae (myrtle family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic. Tastes similar to cloves with a hint of cinnamon and nutmeg, but also with some peppery heat.
Etymology:	Allspice became known in Europe long after its discovery by Columbus. Similar to peppercorns, the new grains were termed "pepper" in many languages, usually with an attribute indicating Caribbean origin or aroma. Examples of the former include Basque Jamaikako piperbeltz and Russian Yamajskiy perets; examples of the latter are French poivre aromatique and Spanish pimienta dulce (not to be confused with pimiento dulce, or paprika).
	In some languages, allspice is termed "English spice" as in German Englisches gewürz and Polish ziele Angielskie. These names originate from British colonisation of Jamaica and consequent control of the European market. English "allspice" and similar terms such as German Allgewürz, French toute-épice and Chinese bi wei hu jiao reflect the complex aroma of the spice leading to the belief that it combines the flavours of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves.
	The genus name pimenta comes from Spanish pimienta "black pepper". The genus name dioica from Greek di- "two", oikos "house" indicates that the male and female flowers grow on different plants (botanists call such plants "dioicious"). Species name officinalis refers to a "drug", "medicine" or "plant".
Uses:	Allspice, with its pleasing clove-like aroma, is the most important spice in Caribbean cuisine and is used extensively. Meat is often stuffed with allspice leaves and barbecued over a fire of allspice wood, similar to the use of myrtle wood in the Mediterranean region. Jamaican cuisine is known for its fiery jerk pastes, commonly used to marinate pork or chicken before barbecuing. Jerk is made of onions and local chillies together with allspice berries, allspice or cinnamon leaves, garlic, thyme, black pepper and vinegar or lime juice.
	Allspice is also grown in Mexico in poorer quality and it is used for the famous mole sauces of Central Mexico and for the recados of Yucatan. The largest European consumer is the UK where it is used for stews and sauces and for flavouring pickled vegetables.
	On the European continent, allspice is less appreciated but is contained in commercial spice mixtures for making sausages and is used by Scandinavians for fine meat pastries, e.g. Danish smørrebrød (white bread with sausages, pastries, fish, cheese and vegetables). Allspice berries are sometimes used in the somewhat antiquated French spice mixture quatre épices.
	Allspice has not been widely accepted by Asian cooks, although the spice is well-known in South-Eastern Europe and in Turkey. The pungent-aromatic quality of allspice is much in line with the style of Arabic cooking, but allspice is not used in Western Asian mutton dishes due to lack of availability. The only Old World cuisine using allspice is Ethiopian, where the spice mixture berbere contains allspice grown on nearby Réunion Island.
	Fruits of the closely related species pimenta racemosa are sometimes used to adulterate supplies of allspice.

Almond

We are all used to almond as a food product, but this fruit is also a versatile spice.

Almond tree	Ripening almonds	Ripe almonds

Unshelled almonds	Shelled almonds	Flaked and ground almonds

Species:	Prunus dulcis.
Origin:	Western Asia or Central Asia.
Source:	Almonds have been cultivated in the Mediterranean region for more than 2,000 years. The popularity of the plant spread northwards across Europe during the Middle Ages, when it was grown in accordance with Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis. Climatic conditions were not favourable for almond growing in Northern Europe, however, so attempts to grow it were largely abandoned. The most important producers for the European market today are Spain and Italy, with Californian almonds of increasing importance.
Used Part:	The soft interior of the fruit stone (embryo).
Family:	Rosaceae (rose family).
Effect:	Sweet almonds have a delicate, nutty fragrance and taste. Bitter almonds taste strongly bitter and develop an intensive, characteristic aroma when moistened (e.g. by chewing).
Etymology:	Names for almond in European languages essentially derive from the Latin amygdala, itself derived from Greek amygdalē. The English "almond" is derived from Old French, via the Middle English almande. The botanical genus name prunus originates from the Latin name of the closely related prunum "plum", which in turn originates from the Greek proumnē.
	The species name, dulcis "sweet" is motivated by the kernel's taste. Bitter almonds are considered a variety (var. amara, where Latin amarus means "bitter"). The Latin dulcis is the progenitor of most terms for "sweet" in Romance languages, e.g. French doux, Italian dolce, Portuguese doce and Catalan dolç.
Uses:	Sweet almonds are much used in Middle Eastern cuisine.
	In North Indian cooking (which was heavily influenced by the cooking of Persia), almonds are widely used with poppy seeds as a sauce thickener (wheat flour is never used for this purpose in India). Typically, almonds are fried together with other spices (cinnamon, mace, cumin and garlic or ginger) and then quenched with yoghurt. Almond pieces browned in ghee (butter fat) are a popular, aromatic decoration for fragrant biryanis or other dishes of meat with dried fruits. Some Indian desserts also contain almond, e.g. badaami kheer, a liquid almond pudding flavoured with saffron or rose water.
	The most famous product of Western cuisine containing almonds is marzipan, a confection made by kneading a mixture of ground almonds, sugar and rose water. For this recipe, sweet almonds are either used alone or flavoured with a few bitter almonds.
	As bitter almonds are toxic they are hard to buy in Western countries and often replaced by bitter almond essence, made by distilling a mixture of ground bitter almonds and water. Almond essence is well-suited to flavour biscuits, cakes and marzipan. Culinary use of bitter almonds is mostly limited to sweets and, if used to flavour spicy dishes such as fried pork, careful dosage is essential.

Angelica

I associate angelica with crystallised fruits, but it also has other uses as a spice.

Angelica plant showing inflorescence	Ripening fruits (often incorrectly named "seeds")	Dried broken and ground angelica root

Species:	Angelica archangelica.
Origin:	Western Asia.
Source:	Angelica has spread from Syria in Western Asia to many temperate European countries and become naturalised. Spread northwards across Europe during the Middle Ages when it was grown in the monasteries in accordance with Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis, nowadays angelica is native to Far Northern European countries including Russia, Iceland and Lapland, as well as to parts of Scotland. It is cultivated widely across Europe and can be found in many parks and gardens in London, having escaped from cultivation in the 18th century.
Used Part:	Root, leaves, fruits (often incorrectly described as "seeds").
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Both the odour and taste of the fruits are pleasantly aromatic and quite different from fennel, parsley, anise, caraway and chervil. Angelica has been likened to musk and to juniper. Even the roots are fragrant and form one of the principal aromatics that grow in Europe. Other parts of the plant have the same flavour but their active principles are more transient.
Etymology:	After the spread of Christianity from the Middle East into Europe, the plant became linked in the popular mind with archangelic patronage and associated with the spring-time festival of the Annunciation. According to legend, angelica was revealed in a dream by an angel to cure the plague.
	Another explanation for the name is that the plant blooms on the day of Michael the Archangel (May 8th in the old calendar), and on that account it can be used as a preservative against evil spirits and witchcraft. All parts of the plant were believed efficacious against spells and enchantment and it was held in such esteem that it was called "the root of the Holy Ghost". Names in almost all modern European languages reflect the angelic origins of the plant, e.g. French angélique, German engelwortz and Dutch engelwortel.
Uses:	Stems of angelica are stewed with acid fruits, added to jams and preserves and can be eaten raw, usually with cream cheese or dips. Crystallised stems are used in the preparation of cakes and desserts. From the 10th century onwards, angelica was cultivated as both a vegetable and a medicinal plant, achieving great popularity in Scandinavia in the 12th century. Samic peoples continue to use it as a flavouring in reindeer milk and it has other culinary value as a spice.
	In 1602, angelica was introduced in Niort in France, which had recently been ravaged by the plague. Its supposed medical effectiveness against the plague and other medieval maladies made it extremely popular and it has remained popular ever since. Angelica is used to flavour liqueurs or aquavits, e.g. Chartreuse, Benedictine, Vermouth and Dubonnet, omelettes and trout. The long bright green stems are also candied and used as decoration.
	Angelica contains a variety of chemicals which have been shown to have medicinal properties. Chewing on angelica or drinking tea brewed from it will cause local anaesthesia, but it will heighten the consumer's immune system. It has been shown to have some effectiveness against various bacteria, fungal infections and even viral infections.

Anise

Anise is one of a family of herbs including fennel and tarragon, often described as "anise-like". These herbs are very trendy in modern cuisine, but I've never been particularly fond of them.

Anise plants	Anise fruits (often incorrectly named "seeds")	Ground anise fruits

Species:	Pimpinella anisum.
Origin:	Eastern Mediterranean or Western Asia.
Source:	Turkey is an important producer today, but better quality anise originates from Spain.
Used Part:	Fruits (sometimes incorrectly called "seeds").
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Sweet and very aromatic. A similar fragrance to that of cicely.
Etymology:	The spice gained its Latin name anisum as a result of confusion with dill, known in Greek as anēson. Names of anise in virtually all European languages are derived from anisum.
	The Sanskrit name shatapushpa means "one hundred flowers" and refers to the flower cluster. The Hindi name saunf properly denotes fennel, of which anise is incorrectly thought to be a foreign variety. To distinguish anise clearly from fennel, the specialised terms patli saunf "thin fennel" or vilayati saunf "foreign fennel" are often used. Some languages refer to the sweetness of anise, e.g. Greek glykaniso "sweet anise", or name anise as a sweet variant of other spices, e.g. Indonesian jinten manis and Arabic kamun halu "sweet cumin" (a name sometimes also used in English). Arabic has another, similar name habbu al-hulwa "sweet grains". The Portuguese term erva doce "sweet herb" may denote anise, fennel or sweetleaf (stevia rebaudiana).
	The genus name pimpinella is Late Latin for "narrow-ribbed fruit".
Uses:	During the Middle Ages, anise was found widely across Europe growing in monastic gardens accordance with Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis. Nowadays its use has declined and in Western cuisine is mostly restricted to flavouring bread and cakes, although fruit products are occasionally aromatised with anise. In small dosage, anise seeds are sometimes contained in spice mixtures for sausages and stews. Their main applications are, however, anise-flavoured liqueurs, of which there are many in different Mediterranean countries including rakı in Turkey, ouzo in Greece and pernod in France. In many cases, oil of anise is partially or wholly substituted by oil of star anise in these products.
	In the East, anise is less known and both fennel and star anise are more easily available and more popular. Anise may substitute for fennel in North Indian recipes, but it is a less suitable substitute for star anise in Chinese foods.
	Anise appears occasionally in Mexican recipes, but native anise-flavoured herbs (Mexican tarragon and Mexican pepperleaf) are more commonly used. Anise is an acceptable substitute for both, although tarragon is even better.
	Several plants generate an aroma comparable to that of anise. Within the apiaceae (parsley) family, fennel and cicely copy the aroma of anise perfectly and chervil and dill also resemble anise, although their fragrance is less pure. In Far Eastern cuisines (India, Iran and Indonesia), no distinction is made between anise and fennel and the same name is usually given to both of them. In the Philippines star anise is very popular and is referred to as "anise" for short.

Annatto

Annatto is sometimes used as a food dye but not often as a spice and I have never used it.

Annatto tree with pods	Annatto flower and seed pods	Mature annatto seed pod	Annatto seeds

Species:	Bixa orellana.
Origin:	South America.
Source:	Brazil is the main producer and exporter of annatto. The plant is also grown in the Philippines, having been introduced there by the Spanish.
Used Part:	Dark red seeds.
Family:	Bixaceae (achiote family).
Effect:	Annatto has a weak, perfumed odour.
Etymology:	The botanical genus name bixa comes from a different Carib plant name, usually written bija or biché. The species name orellana refers to the Spanish conquistador Francisco de Orellana (1511-46). By confusion of the Spanish name with the French town of Orleans, the German name Orleanstrauch ("shrub of Orleans") emerged. Other names of this plant all stem from Indio tongues in Central and South America, e.g. urucul from Tupi-Guarani in the Amazon region and achiote from Nahuatl in Mexico.
	The English common name "lipstick tree" refers to the cosmetic use of the plant. The common name "annatto" is derived from the Cariban Galibi name annoto, "annatto". The Malay jarak Belanda literally means "distant Holland".
Uses:	Annatto is mostly used as a flavouring and food colouring in South America. In the Caribbean, the seeds are usually fried in animal or vegetable fat and the resulting dyed fat is then used to fry meat or vegetables to achieve a golden yellow to golden brown colour. Mexican cooks use annatto seeds and acetic preservatives mixed to achiote, a paste that dissolves in hot fat. This is easy to use and can be added to marinades and sauces to improve the colour.
	The original Aztec drinking chocolate reputedly contained annatto seeds combined with vanilla, and using annatto to deepen the colour of chocolate was common in Europe until the 17th century. Today the spice is sometimes used to deepen the colour of butter or cheese but has little other culinary significance. The seeds may be used ground (often after soaking in hot water to soften them) or in form of annatto oil.
	In Yucatan, meat is often marinated with a vibrantly yellow spice mixture of annatto, dried oregano, ground spices, garlic and the Yucatan chilli recado. The juice of bitter orange adds a distinct, acidic fruitiness. Recado-marinated meats are traditionally wrapped in banana leaves and baked in a hot stone pit. The technique can be applied to poultry and fish, but is most popular for suckling pig. Food prepared this way is generally referred to as pibil.
	By Spanish influence, annatto also has made its way to South-East Asia. In the Philippines the ground seeds are added to soups and stews and meat is often marinated with annatto-coloured seasonings. In Vietnam, batters and coconut-based curries are often prepared with annatto oil. The Vietnamese version of Beijing duck, ga quay mat ong, uses annatto oil to colour the skin.
	In China, annatto seeds are occasionally used in seasonings or in marinades for grilled or fried meat (usually pork), resulting in a bright orange meat surface. A chemically similar dye is contained in saffron which has a similar colour but which, with its incomparable fragrance, is much more than a colouring agent. Safflower, in contrast, does not have any taste and can therefore be used whenever colour is desired but no aroma is wanted. The other alternative, turmeric, has a strong earthy aroma and stains food bright yellow.

Asafoetida

When you first smell this it's not something you are likely to forget. But if you enjoy Indian food, you will almost certainly recognise that elusive aroma that you've never quite pinned down. Now you know where it comes from.

Asafoetida plants	Asafoetida root resin	Ground asafoetida resin

Species:	Ferula assa-foetida.
Origin:	Central Asia.
Source:	Various species of genus ferula grow wild from the Eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia, but asafoetida is only cultivated in its Central Asian area of origin (Iran to Afghanistan) and is not found elsewhere.
Used Part:	The milk juice obtained from the root, which becomes a brown, resin-like mass when dried out.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	A very strong repugnant smell, similar to stale garlic.
Etymology:	The Latin ferula means "carrier" or "vehicle" and related species f. vulgaris is mentioned in Greek mythology as the plant that helped Prometheus to carry fire from the Sun to the Earth. It has been suggested that stone-age nomad tribes may have used the hollow stems to transport fire between their camps. The same Latin root appears in the botanical name of mango.
	The species name assa-foetida is made up of elements from two languages. Assa is the Latinised version of the Farsi aza "resin" or "mastic" and foetidus is Latin for "smelling" or "fetid". The modern Farsi name angozad derives from ang "gum" and zad "resin". The first element, ang, is also found in the names of asafoetida in many Indic languages, e.g. Hindi hing. Many names, including German teufelsdreck, French merde du diable, Swedish dyvelsträck and Turkish şeytan tersi, mean "devil's dung".
Uses:	Although the smell of fresh asafoetida justifies the name "devil's dung", it is an important spice in Indian and other cuisines and an important herbal medicine. Asafoetida was in use in Europe more than 2,000 years ago - legend has it that the plant was encountered by Alexander the Great on his march through Central Asia. It was used in Ancient Greek and Roman cuisines, often as a substitute for the expensive North African silphion. Asafoetida was used in Europe the Middle Ages to flavour barbecued meat, but after the 16th century it was no longer mentioned in European cookbooks.
	Today asafoetida is much used in Iranian cooking and is especially popular in India. In some parts of India asafoetida is used as a substitute for garlic and in other Indian cuisines it is combined with garlic or onion.
	With a reputation as a spice for vegetables rather than for meats, asafoetida is now more common in the more vegetarian cuisines of South India than in the more carnivorous cuisines of its natural North Indian habitat. The Tamil spice mixture sambar podi contains asafoetida. Asafoetida is an essential ingredient in the preparation of legumes and pulses in a variety of dishes collectively known as dhal. It is a good example of the overlapping of culinary and medicinal use of a plant, both adding flavour and also acting as an anti-flatulent when used with legumes rich in indigestible oligosaccharids.
	Use of asafoetida differs for the powdered form and the resin. The latter is very strongly scented and must be fried in hot oil both for flavour dispersal and to temper the taste. A pea-sized amount is considered sufficient to flavour a large pot of food. Powdered asafoetida is less intense and may be added without frying, although in this case the aroma develops less deeply.

Barberry

Here's a herb I know well as it grows in my garden back home in London and regularly feeds visitors. However, the diners are not humans... but the robins, blackbirds and pigeons who feast on the berries every year.

Barberry tree	Barberry flowers	Ripe barberry fruits

Species:	Berberis vulgaris.
Origin:	North Africa or Western Asia.
Source:	Berberis vulgaris is, or European barberry, is a shrub native to Central and Southern Europe, North-Western Africa and Western Asia. The plant is now naturalised in Northern Europe, including Britain, Scandinavia and North America.
Used Part:	Fruits and seeds (each fruit contains 2 or 3 seeds). Other parts of the plant can cause a light, non-fatal poisoning.
Family:	Berberidaceae (barberry family).
Effect:	Sour and pleasantly tart, with acidity approaching that of tamarind.
Etymology:	The common name "barberry" and botanical genus name berberis derive from the Middle English barbere, in turn derived from the Latin barbaris and from the Greek barbaroi "stammerers" (any foreigner who could not speak Greek was a barbaros who was said to utter nonsense such as "bar-bar"). The term is ultimately derived from an Indo-European root and appears in Sanskrit as barbaras "stammering".
	The name was passed to Arabic as al-Barbar, originally any people whom the Moors encountered who could not speak Arabic (notably the Berber people, whose language has never been Arabic). In contemporary English we still refer to those of supposed uncultured origin as "barbarians".
	The species name vulgaris is Latin for "common". The English name "holy thorn" has obvious biblical connotations and the French épine-vinette also refers to the sharp thorns.
Uses:	Common barberry is a complex plant which is toxic but has both culinary and medicinal applications. In Europe, the berries are traditionally used for making jam. In South-Western Asia, especially Iran, the berries are used as a culinary spice, typically to lend flavour, aroma and colour to rice.
	Barberry is a host for puccinia graminis "black rust", a disease of wheat. Wheat farmers had accused barberries of spreading rust as early as 1660, but were derided as superstitious by jam makers. The accusation was scientifically proven in 1865, since which date cultivation of European barberry has been prohibited in many areas because of the impact of the disease on wheat crops.
	Barberry stem bark and root bark are used both as a homeopathic medicine and as a herbal medicine recommended (in modest quantities) to aid the secretion of bile, aid with liver problems, act as a purgative and help regulate the digestive processes. Taken in larger amounts, however, berberine causes a variety of unpleasant symptoms.

Basil

Basil is the queen of herbs. In Europe we associate it with Italian cuisine, but it also has wide application in Asia, especially Thailand.

Classsic Mediterranean Genovese basil	Sweet basil in flower	Thai lemon basil

Cinnamon basil	Thai sacred basil	Thai basil seeds

Species:	Ocimum basilicum, o. ×citriodorum, o. americanum, o. minimum, o. sanctum.
Origin:	Southern Asia.
Source:	Genus ocimum is widespread in Asia, Africa and Central and Southern America and was probably first put to cultivation in India. Today, basil is cultivated in many Asian and Mediterranean countries, the main exporters to the EU being France, Italy, Morocco and Egypt. There is also significant production in California. There are many cultivars, the most common being o. basilicum (common, sweet, Italian, Thai, cinnamon and other basils), o. americanum (lemon basil and lime basil), o. ×citriodorum (Greek column and Thai lemon basils), o. sanctum (Thai sacred basil) and o. minimum (Greek bush and dwarf bush basils).
Used Part:	Leaves. The entire herb is usually harvested before flowering. Basil leaves lose most of their flavour within a few weeks of drying. Seeds are used for thickening in Thailand, but do not share the fragrance of the leaves.
Family:	Lamiaceae (mint family).
Effect:	Fresh basil leaves have a strong and characteristic aroma, not comparable to any other spice but with a hint of cloves. In addition to the "Mediterranean basil" most common in the West, there are many varieties with different flavour, most of which are hybrids. Indian sacred basil has an intensive, pungent smell, whereas Thai sweet basil has a distinctive, liquorice aroma.
	Varieties sold to gardeners in the West include cinnamon basil, camphor basil, anise basil and Mexican spice basil. The latter has a pleasant, warm flavour, with a sweet note more reminiscent of cinnamon than of anise. Another group of cultivars are characterised by citrus lemon and balm odours.
	All basil varieties have the property that their dried leaves are much less aromatic than fresh ones, so deep-freezing is the best method of preserving the herb. The common basil grown in Mediterranean countries is often called "sweet basil", but this is misleading because Thai basil has a sweeter quality.
Etymology:	The common name "basil" and botanical genus name basilicum are both derived from Greek basileus "king" because of the royal fragrance of the herb. Names for basil in almost all European languages are related, with some vowel variation, e.g. Icelandic basilíka, Russian vasilki, Provençal baseli, Basque brasilla and Greek vasilikos, derived from bainein "go" and laos "people".
	Names like French herbe royal "royal herb" or Dutch koningskruid "king's herb" are probably derived from the Greek. Iberic names of basil such as Spanish albahaca, Portuguese alfavaca and Catalan alfàbrega are derived from Arabic, as inferred from the prefix al-. The original Arabic form is al-habaqa "the basil".
	Several languages use terms related to the Arabic word raihan, meaning odour or fragrance, e.g. Farsi raihan and Turkish reyhan. Confusingly, the Arabic word rihan means common myrtle. The genus name ocimum is a Latinised derivation of the Greek verb ozein "smell", as in "ozone" and "odour".
	Indic names for holy basil, e.g. Tamil tulasi and Hindi tulsi derive from Sanskrit tulasi. To distinguish holy basil from the European variety, compound names can be used, e.g. Hindi janglitulsi "forest basil" and Urdu kali tulsi "dark basil", referring to the reddish hue of the leaves. The Vietnamese name rau que "cinnamon plant" alludes to the sweet-aromatic odour of some cultivars such as Thai horapha, although this is closer to anise than it is to cinnamon. There are some cinnamon-flavoured basil varieties, but such varieties are not found in Vietnam.
Uses:	Mediterranean basil is one of the most pleasant spices and is indispensable to several Mediterranean cuisines. The sweet, aromatic fragrance is especially popular in Italy. As the delicate aroma of basil is quickly destroyed by cooking, chopped basil leaves are frequently sprinkled over cold or warm dishes before serving. A typical and quite famous recipe often is insalata Caprese "Capri salad", made from tomato slices topped with creamy mozzarella cheese and basil leaves, seasoned with extra virgin olive oil.
	The well-known pesto alla Genovese is a specialty of Liguria. The paste is made from fresh basil leaves together with extra virgin olive oil, pine nuts, garlic and aromatic local cheese (parmigiano or pecorino sardo) and is usually served with pasta. Besides tasting wonderful, pesto is an efficient way to preserve basil without freezing. Unfortunately, pesto is susceptible to enzymatic oxidation and non-acidic mixes must be made shortly prior to consumption. Southern Italian pesto rosso "red pesto" is made from sun dried tomatoes, chillies, olive oil, cheese, pine nuts and basil and due to acidity is much more stable against oxidation.
	In Italian cuisine, basil is frequently combined with tomatoes, pickled olives, capers and garlic for tasty tomato sauces. Simple delicious salads are made from basil, tomatoes, extra virgin olive oil and red wine vinegar. Basil is less used for meat dishes as Italian cooks prefer oregano for this purpose.
	Basil is very popular in Vietnam and Thailand, with basil aroma emanating from nearly every pot at roadside foodstalls. The famous Thai dish gai pad krapo uses chicken with chillies and basil to give flavour and hotness balanced by a subtle basil odour. When using basil in South-East Asian recipes, care must be taken to choose the correct variety.
	Thai sweet basil horapha is mild and has a fascinating anise flavour somewhat comparable to tarragon, but more intensive. The flavour will not tolerate prolonged cooking, so the herb is either sprinkled over food immediately before serving or steeped for a minute or two in the hot foods. Thai sacred basil krapao has a pungent taste often described as peppery. It is most often used for stir-fries, as some cooking is necessary to develop its flavour. The third Thai basil variety, lemon basil, has a lime flavour and is mostly eaten raw as a garnish for fish.
	A most interesting basil variety is ocimum gratissimum "tree basil", a wild basil from the tropics of Africa and Asia. It has a very intensive, dominant flavour of cloves but is highly pungent, with one or two of its large leaves enough for a pot. Tree basil improves almost all savoury foods, from roast chicken to braised beef and has a particular affinity for meats cooked in red wine.

Bay Leaf

This herb - the icon of Italian cooking - is an old favourite, frequently popped into cooking with little thought - almost as a good luck talisman. But it does add a unique and pleasant flavour.

Laurel tree with new growth	Ripening laurel fruits	Dried bay leaves

Species:	Laurus nobilis.
Origin:	Probably Western Asia.
Source:	The laurel tree grows all over the Mediterranean region, with Turkey one of the main exporters. Due to poor frost-resistance, laurel is not generally native to more Northern regions, although cultivars are frequently found in cities and other warmer locations.
Used Part:	Leaves. Industrially, laurel oil is prepared from the fruits, which may also be used as a spice.
Family:	Lauraceae (laurel family).
Effect:	Aromatic and slightly bitter.
Etymology:	The botanical genus name laurus and English "laurel" are derived from the Latin name of the tree, laurus. Almost all languages of Europe have related names, e.g. German lorbeer, Swedish lager, Italian alloro and Portuguese louro. The origin of laurus is not known with certainty but it is neither related to Latin laus "praise" nor loaned from Greek.
	In the Ancient Greek tongue, the plant was named daphnē after the nymph Daphne who turned into a laurel shrub to escape the persecution of Apollo. Bay leaves are called dafin in Romanian, dafni in Modern Greek and defne in Turkish. There are also names meaning "leaves of Daphne", such as Hebrew aley Daphna and Bulgarian Dafinov list.
	Species name nobilis is Latin for "noble". The English term "bay leaf" (Middle English baye, Old French baie) derives from the Latin bacca "berry", referring to the fruits.
Uses:	Bay leaves were considered holy and were associated with Apollo in Ancient Greece. Winners of the Olympic Games were originally decorated with a wreath of olive twigs, but this changed to laurel after the Pythian Games, conducted in honour of Apollo. Roman Emperors made use of laurel wreaths as a symbol of Apollo and bay leaves were a popular spice in Roman cookery. Laurus nobilis spread widely across Europe in medieval times when it was grown in accordance with the Capitulare de Villis of Charlemagne.
	Today, bay leaves are a common flavouring in all Western countries and are used for soups, stews, sauces, pickles and sausages. In addition, several fish dishes profit greatly from bay leaves. In contrast to the majority of leaf spices, bay leaves can be cooked for prolonged time without much loss of aroma. Fresh or dried bay leaves frequently appear in bouquet garni.
	Fresh bay leaves are very strongly aromatic but also bitter. The bitterness is significantly reduced and flavour improved by quick drying, after plucking and sorting without exposure to sunlight. High-quality bay leaves are recognised by their strong aroma and their bright green colour. Bay leaves can be stored for a year, after which they lose their fragrance, turn brown and taste bitter.
	The laurel fruits are less known, although they appear as part of commercial spice mixtures. Because of their robust taste, they fit best to strong sauces and gravies and are excellent with venison (together with juniper). Because of the popularity of bay leaves in the West, many exotic leaf spices are commonly known as "bay leaves" although not botanically or culinarily related. In Asia, the Indian bay leaf comes from a relative of cinnamon native to the Himalayas and Indonesian bay leaves stem from a tree of the myrtle family.
	There are other "bay leaves" in the West including the aromatic Californian bay leaf, which is rarely found because of potential health hazards, and Mexican bay leaf which has little commercial value. West Indian bay leaves, which stem from a close relative of allspice, yield West Indian bay oil.

Bay Leaf, Indian

Indian bay leaf is a relative of the more common bay leaf, or laurel.

Indian bay tree	Indian bay leaves	Dried Indian bay leaves

Species:	Cinnamomum tamala.
Origin:	Southern Asia.
Source:	Indian bay leaf is found on the south slopes of the Himalayas in Kashmir and the North Indian states.
Used Part:	Leaves. The bark may also be used, as an inferior substitute of cinnamon or Chinese cinnamon.
Family:	Lauraceae (laurel family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic, somewhat reminiscent of cinnamon or cloves.
Etymology:	For the etymology of the common name "Indian bay leaf", see bay leaf. The genus name cinnamomum refers to cinnamon, a plant of the same family (laurel), and the botanical species name tamala refers to South India - a misnomer as the plant grows in the north.
	The Sanskrit name tamalapattra means "dark leaf". Greek traders took the name to their own language, falsely identifying the Sanskrit word as the plural form malabathra from which they backformed the singular form malabathron. This name was then taken by the Romans as malabathrum.
	Many recent languages of North India have names for Indian bay leaf that derive from the Sanskrit name, e.g. the Marathi tamal patra. In Hindi and some related tongues, the spice is known as tejpatta "pungent leaf".
Uses:	Indian bay leaves are the leaves of a tree that is closely related to cinnamon. The tough, three-veined leaves are popular in North India, but today are little known elsewhere. They were well known to the Romans under the name malobathrum and were used both for perfumery and in cooking. In recipes they were often referred to as folia "leaves". Indian bay leaves were still available during the Middle Ages and were used for beer brewing till the 16th century, but later they fell victim to the multitude of new available spices and were forgotten.
	Today, Indian bay leaves are a spice used almost exclusively in the kitchens of North India, especially for the famous Mogul cuisine developed at the Imperial courts of Delhi and Agra. Mogul cooking contains elements derived from Arabic and Persian cooking and aims at a complexity and perfection comparable to the architectural beauty of the Taj Mahal, built in the same era.
	In Mogul cuisine, much use is made of sweet and aromatic spices, with Indian bay leaves, cinnamon, cloves and cardamom considered the most important spices for biryani rice dishes. Indian bay leaves are also found in kormas, for which the North Indian city of Lucknow is famous. They also form part of the North Indian spice mixture garam masala, almost the only time when they are used in ground form.
	Since Indian bay leaves are hardly available in the West, books encourage use of bay leaf (laurel) instead. The taste is not the same and bay leaf is also weaker in flavour. The best substitutes for Indian bay leaves are cinnamon leaves or fresh cardamom leaves, but these are also not easy to find. A small piece of cinnamon bark or a few dried allspice berries make a simple and superior substitute.

Bay Leaf, Indonesian

Indonesian bay leaf is not related to common bay leaf or Indian bay leaf and has quite different culinary characteristics, although it looks very similar.

Indonesian bay tree	Indonesian bay coming into flower	Dried Indonesian bay leaves

Species:	Eugenia polyantha.
Origin:	South-East Asia.
Source:	The tree grows wild in the Western part of the South-East Asian peninsular (Burma to Malaysia) and in Western Indonesia, although its culinary use is restricted to Malaysia and Indonesia.
Used Part:	Leaves. The small leaves turn brown on drying. As they are rarely traded in Europe, Indonesian cuisine cookbooks frequently suggest substitution by ordinary bay leaves, although there is little similarity between the two spices.
Family:	Myrtaceae (myrtle family).
Effect:	Aromatic, slightly sour and astringent, but quite weak. The leaves develop a little more flavour after short frying.
Etymology:	The genus eugenia was so-named in honour of Prince Eugene of Savoy. The species name polyantha "many flowered" is derived from Greek polys "many" and anthos "flower". The Indonesian name daun salam (cf. Dutch daon salam, Malay daun salam) means "peace leaf" (daun means "leaf" in many Asian languages and salam from the Arabic salaam "peace").
Uses:	Indonesian bay leaf is an exotic spice not readily available in the West (except for countries with a high proportion of Indonesians, e.g. The Netherlands). The leaves may be used fresh or dried and are common in the cuisines of Sumatra, Java and Bali. Applied to meat and (to a lesser extent) vegetables in order to release their flavour, they must be fried or otherwise cooked for a while.
	In some books, daun salam is called "Indian bay leaf", a name stems from the time when Indonesia was generally known as "East India". This is misleading, because daun salam is known only in Indonesian and Malay cooking and it is totally different from the Indian bay leaf employed in North Indian cuisine.

Bergamot

Bergamot is an unusual and very beautiful culinary herb. Don't confuse it with bergamot orange, from which it derives its common name.

Flowering bergamot plants	Bergamot flower	Bergamot leaves

Species:	Monarda didyma.
Origin:	North America.
Source:	The bergamot is only native to North America.
Used Part:	Leaves and flowers.
Family:	Lamiaceae (mint family).
Effect:	Flowers and leaves have an orange perfume, which is why the plant is named after the bergamot orange.
Etymology:	The genus name of bergamot, monarda, was given in honour of Nicholas Monardus, a Spanish botanist (1493–1588). Species name didyma refers to the Oracle of Apollo at Didyma in Greece. The origin of the name bergamot and other European variants (e.g. French bergamote, Italian bergamotta) is a Turkic word akin to Turkish bey-armudu "lord's pear" or "prince's pear", derived from Old Turkish beg "lord" or "ruler". It is also the source of the modern Turkish bey, used as part of personal names, cf. also the female form, begum "lady" or "queen".
	Bergamot was used extensively by Oswego Indians and by settlers to the New World. It was used as a mint-flavoured substitute for Indian tea following the Boston Tea Party, hence the name "Oswego tea" in modern American English and thé d'Oswego in French.
Uses:	The leaves have culinary use in both savoury and sweet dishes, including pork, veal, vegetable dishes, fruit dishes and ices. It is also used in large quantities in American meatloaf. In addition to use of the leaf, the flowers can be finely shredded and incorporated into salads.
	The "mint tea" made from bergamot leaves is said to be good for fever, stomach problems and restful sleep. Besides its culinary and medicinal qualities, the flowers and leaves of bergamot are good ingredients for potpourri and the oil of the plant has been an ingredient in perfumery.

Boldo Leaf

Boldo leaf is a relatively unknown culinary herb but one which is destined to become more popular.

Boldo tree	Boldo leaves and flowers	Dried boldo leaves

Species:	Peumus boldus.
Origin:	South America.
Source:	Boldo is still found in coastal areas of Chile. The plant has been introduced to the Mediterranean region and is sometimes found growing wild there, particularly in North African Mediterranean states.
Used Part:	Leaves.
Family:	Monimiaceae (monimia family).
Effect:	Aromatic (reminiscent of camphor) and slightly bitter.
Etymology:	The common name "boldo" and species name boldus derive from the language of the Araucan peoples of Chile, boldu "green shrub". Almost all modern languages use the name boldo or a close variant. Genus name peumus is Latin, from the Old Spanish peumo "boldo", from the Chilean Mapuche péumo.
Uses:	Boldo leaves are almost unknown outside the kitchens of indigenous peoples in South America, although their warm, spicy flavour seems to please all who taste them. Boldo will probably succeed as a popular spice as soon as it becomes better known and more readily available.
	Boldo leaves are a good substitute for Indian bay leaves, which are necessary for North Indian kormas and an ingredient for the spice mixture garam masala. As boldo leaves are strong, amounts should be reduced when used as a substitute.
	Boldo leaves are best suited for fish and also enrich tasty sauces and gravies. They are well suited to mushrooms (similar to savory) and another application is pickled vegetables.

Borage

Borage is not a herb that I am very familiar with, although I understand that it is commonly used in Germany and my dad has grown some successfully in his herb patch in North Yorkshire.

Borage plants	Borage flowers	Borage leaves

Species:	Borago officinalis.
Origin:	Western Mediterranean.
Source:	The plant grows wild across Central, Eastern and Southern Europe.
Used Part:	Fresh leaves. The blue flowers are sometimes used as a food colorant.
Family:	Boraginaceae (borage family).
Effect:	The taste of borage is weak and very similar to that of fresh cucumber.
Etymology:	The common name "borage" and botanical genus name borago can be traced back to Medieval Latin borrago, by way of French and Spanish. The name borrago has an Arabic origin, from abu buraq "father of sweat" (from the use of borage leaves in diaphoretic medicines) or from abu huras "father of roughness" (from the texture of the leaf surface).
	Many European languages have names related to borage, including French bourrache, German borretsch, Basque borrai, and Greek borantsa. Despite the Arabic origin of borage, modern Arabic has no related plant name. Instead, borage is named lisan athaur "tongue of the bull" in reference to the thick, uneven leaves.
	The characteristic cucumber aroma of borage gives rise to names such as Swedish gurkört, German gurkenkraut and Dutch komkommerkruid, all meaning "cucumber herb". The Baltic names Lithuanian agurklė, Latvian gurķumētras and Estonian kurgirohi also contain a "cucumber" element.
	Species name officinalis refers to a "drug", "medicine" or "plant".
Uses:	Borage is a culinary herb mostly popular in Central Europe. Its light cucumber fragrance is mostly suited for raw vegetable salads and borage is also used to make pureed soups. Boiling, frying and simmering quickly destroy most of its characteristic fragrance.
	In many regions of Germany, sauces prepared from herbs are popular in spring and many of the recipes contain borage. Best known (even outside of Germany) is the grüne Soße "green sauce" made in Frankfurt. The traditional recipe calls for seven herbs: parsley, chervil, chives, cress, sorrel, salad burnet and borage, with lemon balm sometimes added as an eighth. Grüne Soße is served with boiled or braised meat, boiled new potatoes, fish and vegetables. In ancient recipes the sauce was prepared with herbs and vegetable oil only, resulting in a mayonnaise-like product, whereas in more contemporary recipes dairy products are used (yoghurt, crème fraîche or sour cream) together with boiled egg yolks. The sauce is seasoned with vinegar or lemon juice, white pepper, optionally pureed garlic and a dash of mustard paste. Similar recipes, probably historical predecessors of grüne Soße, are sauce vert in France and Ligurian pesto.

Bush Tomato

I didn't know anything about bush tomato (akudjura) until I started my Australian Gastronomy project at college. Thanks to the generosity of Australian celebrity chef Vic Cherikoff, the ground akudjura shown in the photo below is now part of my spice collection.

Bush tomato plant	Ripening bush tomato fruits	Ground dried bush tomato

Species:	Solanum centrale.
Origin:	Australia.
Source:	Bush tomato is found in Central Australia, particularly Northern Territories, growing wild in areas with 150 to 300mm rainfall. The plant is now under cultivation in Central Australia.
Used Part:	Fruit. Green (unripe) fruits are toxic, as are the fruits of some related species.
Family:	Solanaceae (nightshade family).
Effect:	The pale tan to dark brown berries have intense, earthy, caramel-like flavours and a slightly tangy acidity. The spice has great piquancy and pungency.
Etymology:	The name of the family derives from the Latin solanum "nightshade", but the further etymology of that word is unclear. It has been suggested it originates from the Latin verb solari "soothing" (presumably referring to alleged soothing pharmacological properties of some of the psychoactive species found in the family), but a more likely derivation is that the name comes from the perceived resemblance of the flowers of some family members to the sun and its rays.
	Botanical species name centrale "central" refers to the location of the plant habitat in the central part of Australia. Bush (Australian meaning "wild area") derives from Middle English bush, busk or bosk, akin to Middle Dutch busch or bosch "bush" or "forest" and to Old High German busc and Old Swedish buske "bush". Tomato is an alteration (probably influenced by potato) of Old English tomate, from Nahuatl tomatl via Spanish.
Uses:	There are several species of bush tomato, some of which are poisonous but appear identical to the edible varieties to all but the most experienced eye. The common edible species is solanum centrale, but some other species including s. chippendalei and s. ellipticum also produce edible fruit and are of interest to the native foods industry.
	Bush tomato has formed a core part of the diet of native Australian Aboriginals for many thousands of years. Bush tomato is related to the garden tomato and is a fast growing shrub that fruits prolifically in the year after fire or good rains. The fruits are left on the bush until overripe and dried by the sun, when the tiny dried tomatoes are collected and further sun-dried before being ground and then laid out in the sun once again.
	Bush tomatoes are rich in vitamin C and the early immigrant desert explorers and drovers prevented scurvy by cooking the fruits with their meat stews and mutton chops. Bush tomato is typically used in whole dried berry form to flavour stews and casseroles, while the ground dried berry, known as akudjura powder, blends well with coriander seed and wattleseed to flavour chicken, beef and full-flavoured fish such as salmon and tuna. Bush tomato is an essential ingredient of various chutneys and sauces.

Camomile

I first encountered camomile (often spelt "chamomile") as an ingredient in a packet of herbal tea leaves. Now I'm much more familiar with the herb in a professional environment.

Camomile lawn	Camomile flowers	Dried camomile flowers

Species:	Anthemis nobilis, aka. chamaemelum nobile.
Origin:	Mediterranean.
Source:	Camomile has been native to the Mediterranean region since ancient times. Before World War II, camomile was cultivated in Belgium, France and Saxony and it has also been cultivated for some time in Mitcham, Surrey.
Used Part:	Flowers.
Family:	Asteraceae (daisy family).
Effect:	The fresh plant is strongly and agreeably aromatic, with a distinct scent of apples.
Etymology:	The botanical genus name chamaemelum and common name "camomile" are derived via Middle English camemille, from Medieval Latin camomilla, Late Latin chamomilla and originally Greek kamaimēlon "ground apple", from kamai "on the ground" and mēlon "apple". The Spanish name manzanilla signifies "a little apple", from the apple-like smell of its flower. The species name nobile is Latin for "noble".
Uses:	Camomile, or chamomile, is one of the oldest favourites amongst garden herbs and its reputation as a herbal medicine shows no sign of decline. The Egyptians revered the plant from a belief in its power to cure ague and they dedicated it to their gods. No plant was better known to country-dwellers, it having been grown for centuries in English gardens for its use as a common domestic medicine as well as an ornamental lawn shrub.
	In England in the Middle Ages it was used as a strewing herb for its fragrance, in Spain it was used to flavour one of their lightest sherries which was given the same name. Fresh flower heads can be added to salads for fragrance and decoration and dried leaves can be made in to a tea. Infused camomile has various other culinary applications, including colouring and flavouring cooked rice.
	When walked on, the strong, fragrant scent of the plant often reveals its presence before it is seen, for which reason it was employed as an aromatic strewing herb in the Middle Ages and used often to be purposely planted in green walks in gardens. The camomile used in olden days was known as the "plants' physician" because of a widespread belief that sickly plants will recover if camomile is planted near to them. Camomile is also used cosmetically, primarily to make a rinse for blonde hair.

Capers

Capers add a perfect touch to many dishes, especially smoked salmon.

Caper plants	Flowering and budding caper plant	Pickled capers

Species:	Capparis spinosa.
Origin:	Western Asia or Central Asia.
Source:	Capers grow wild all over the Mediterranean region and they are frequently cultivated, especially in France, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Iran, Cyprus and Greece.
Used Part:	Buds, harvested shortly before flowering. They are not dried but are pickled in oil, brine or vinegar. Smaller buds, known as nonpareilles and surfines are considered more valuable than the larger capucines and communes. Intensively flavoured pickled caper fruits or "caper berries" are less commonly traded.
Family:	Capparaceae (caper family).
Effect:	The fragrance is spicy and slightly sour. After pickling the taste tends to be slightly astringent and pungent. Caper berries have a stronger and more dominant but otherwise similar flavour.
Etymology:	The botanical genus name capparis, English common name "caper" and its relatives in several European tongues can be traced to the Latin capparis, a word loaned from Greek kapparis, whose origin is unknown but is probably in West or Central Asia. Another theory links kapparis to the name of the island Cyprus (Kypros), where capers grow abundantly.
	The names of capers in most European languages share a common Latin origin and are similar, e.g.: Italian cappero, French câpre, Swedish kapris, Russian kapersy and Spanish tápana. The Provençal name tapeno is the origin of the name tapenade for a famous French appetiser.
	The species name spinosa "thorny" refers to the sharp thorns of the plant. The prefix al- in Iberic names (Portuguese alcaparra, Spanish alcaparrón) indicates that these names are derived from the Arabic al-kabara, rather than directly from the Latin.
Uses:	The fragile and short-lived flowers of wild caper bushes are a common sight in all countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, extending as far South as the Sahara and East to the dry regions of Central Asia where the plant is thought to have originated.
	Capers are integral to several Mediterranean cuisines and mostly associated with Italian and Cypriot foods. They are used in tomato or wine sauces and fit well to poultry and fish. They are popular with cold meat and frequently used for Italian pizza. Capers harmonise with other Mediterranean spices (basil, oregano and garlic) and are frequently combined with pickled olives.
	A famous recipe from Italy is vitello tonnato "veal in tuna-flavoured sauce". A piece of veal shoulder is simmered in a well-flavoured mixture of vegetable broth and white wine, cut in thin slices and marinated with a special sauce, salsa tonnata, made from egg yolk, white wine, lemon juice, olive oil, canned tuna, anchovies and capers.
	The cuisines of Central and Northern Europe with their general preference for lightly flavoured foods have also come to use capers, the main applications being cold dishes (fish salads, minced meat and savoury vegetable salads). Many sauces owe their special character to the addition of a few chopped capers but heating such sauces must be avoided, because the aroma of caper is quickly destroyed by higher temperature.
	Königsberger klopse "East Prussian meatballs" is a dish comprising a mixture of ground meat, white bread, milk, eggs, anchovies and spices formed into dumplings, which are carefully boiled in a well-flavoured broth and served with a sauce made from cream, capers and lemon juice.
	Caper berries are the fruits of the caper shrub, processed in much the same way as capers. The gherkin-shaped fruits have a strong caper flavour. Their use is not as widespread as that of capers and is mostly restricted to Spain which is also the main producer. The flavour of caper berries tolerates boiling much better than the flavour of caper buds.
	Pickled capers are occasionally used as flavouring in Afghanistan, Pakistan and North-Western India. Capers were introduced to Central America by Spanish conquistadors and appear in some Mexican foods.

Caraway

In the East End of London where I grew up, caraway is mainly used to feed budgerigars rather than human diners.

Flowering caraway plants	Ripening caraway fruits	Dried caraway fruits (often incorrectly named "seeds")

Species:	Carum carvi.
Origin:	Western Asia and possibly Central Europe.
Source:	Caraway is native to a wide area of Central Europe and Western Asia. Today it is chiefly cultivated in Finland, the Netherlands, Eastern Europe and Germany. It is also cultivated in North Africa, particularly Egypt.
Used Part:	Fruits, usually but incorrectly called "caraway seeds".
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic and warm.
Etymology:	The German term for caraway, kümmel, derives from Latin cuminum for cumin and was misapplied to the caraway plant. The Latin cuminum leads via Greek kyminon back to Semitic forms, e.g. old Hebrew kammōn. Some names in European languages also relate to Latin cuminum, e.g. Danish kommen, Latvian ķimenes and Polish kminek.
	Similarly to Latin cuminum, Greek karon means "cumin" rather than "caraway". The ultimate origin is unclear and may derive from the Caria region of Asia Minor but may be a variant of Greek kyminon "cumin". The word was loaned to Latin as carum with the changed meaning "caraway" and gave rise to number of modern names, e.g. French carvi, Italian caro, Greek karvi and Norwegian karve. The English term "caraway" also belongs to that series and was probably mediated by Arabic (modern form karawya) from the Latin carum.
	Languages of other regions often lack a specific name for caraway, but use the name of cumin instead with an epithet referring to foreignness or to Germany, e.g. Turkish Frenk kimyonu "Frankish cumin", Italian cumino tedesco, Finnish saksankumina and Hindi vilayati jeera.
	The French name of caraway is carvi, but this is little used and caraway is termed cumin de prés "meadow cumin", especially in the North of France where it grows wild. Some French texts misleadingly refer to cumin when caraway is meant.
Uses:	Caraway is recognised as the most typical spice of the German-speaking countries. It is an ancient spice of Central Europe and caraway fruits have been found in numerous Neolithic villages.
	Caraway has had numerous culinary and medicinal applications since Roman times, not least caraway-flavoured liqueurs mostly produced and consumed in Northern Germany and Scandinavia. Although caraway is a common plant of alpine meadows at low elevation, it was grown in medieval monasteries in accordance with the Capitulare de Villis of Charlemagne, mainly for its antiflatulent powers. Some domestic production continues in Germany, although most now originates from Egypt.
	Caraway is the spice that gives Southern German and Austrian foods their characteristic flavour and is used for meat, vegetable and rye bread. It is also popular in Scandinavia and particularly in the Baltic states, but is hardly known in Southern Europe. True caraway aficionados use the whole fruits, but even the powder is strongly aromatic. Caraway's aroma does not harmonise with most other spices, but its combination with garlic is effective and popular for meat such as schweinsbraten "roast pork" and with vegetables. Sauerkraut (sour cabbage made by lactic fermentation) is always flavoured with caraway and juniper as unfermented boiled cabbage without caraway lacks character. Some cheese varieties from Central Europe contain caraway grains.
	Caraway is of importance in North African cuisines, especially Tunisian where it is used in several recipes of harissa, a fiery paste made of dried chillies and the same is true of zhoug, a similar preparation found in Yemen. Other references to caraway in Middle East, Indian or Far East recipes probably refer to cumin.
	Caraway is a controversial spice, appearing dominant and unpleasant to those who are not accustomed to it. Use of the ground spice or the fruits in bouquet garni removed after cooking is a compromise.

Cardamom, Black

We always kept black cardamom at home and generally used it in sweet applications, with green cardamom being used for savoury dishes - a quite different usage to that employed in India.

Black cardamom plants	Black cardamom flowers and rhizomes	Black cardamom seed pods

Species:	Amomum subulatum.
Origin:	Central and Eastern Asia.
Source:	Several species of the genus amomum are native to the mountainous area from the Himalayas to Southern China. Amomum subulatum is native to the Eastern Himalayas with the main production regions being Nepal and Sikkim.
Used Part:	Seeds. Commonly the large (2-3cm) brown pods are sold as a whole.
Family:	Zingiberaceae (ginger family).
Effect:	Black cardamom has a fresh and aromatic aroma in which camphor is easily discernible. By virtue of the traditional drying procedure over open flames, the spice also acquires a strong smoky flavour.
Etymology:	The etymology of the genus name amomum and common name "cardamom" are as for green cardamom. The botanical species name subulatum derives from the Latin subula "awl", referring probably to the awl-shaped and pointed leaves.
	Several languages make reference to the geographical origin of the plant in the Himalayas (as opposed to green cardamom which originates in South India), e.g. German Nepal-cardamom, French Cardamome du Népal). For the source of Gujarati elchi, Hindi elaichi and Punjabi ilaichi, see green cardamom.
Uses:	Black cardamom is usually described as an inferior substitute for green cardamom, but this can be seriously challenged. In India, black cardamom has its special field of application and although green cardamoms and black cardamoms are frequently interchangeable, the black variety is felt superior for spicy and rustic dishes, while green cardamom is much preferred in the Mogul cuisine with its subtle blend of sweet fragrances.
	Black cardamom can be used in rather liberal amounts, up to a few capsules per person. The smoky fragrance of the pure spice is not discernible in the finished dish. Black cardamom cannot dominate a dish, but enhances and intensifies the taste of other ingredients.
	The pods should be slightly crushed before use, but not so much that the seeds are released although these may be removed before serving (especially from soups). Black cardamom, as other spices used in North India, needs some cooking time to best develop its aroma. Thus, it is generally a good idea to prepare North Indian braised dishes (kormas) a few hours or even a day in advance.
	Although there are many distinct species of black cardamom ranging in pod size from 2 cm to more than 5 cm, their tastes do not differ much, although only the Nepal variety is smoked. Apart from use in Indian and Nepali cuisine they are not much known, but have some importance in Central and Southern China where the ground seeds are an optional ingredient of Chinese five spice.
	In the mountains of Sichuan in central China, black cardamom is commonly employed in long-simmered meet stews together with other dried spices. The term xiang liao "fragrant grains" refers to such mixtures of dried spices which are prepared differently for each recipe and typically contain Chinese cinnamon, Sichuan pepper, black cardamom, star anise and lesser galangale.
	There are also some related wild African black cardamoms (aframomum) found in Madagascar, Somalia and Cameroon.
	Black cardamom should be distinguished from the pungent West African spice grains of paradise, which have a similar taste and appear sporadically on the Western market.

Cardamom, Green

We have used green cardamoms in my home kitchen for as long as I can remember, both for Indian meals and other spiced dishes.

Green cardamom plant	Cardamom flower and unripe pods	Green cardamom fruit pods

Species:	Elettaria cardamomum.
Origin:	Southern Asia.
Source:	Cardamom is native to South India and Sri Lanka. Although these countries are the largest producers of cardamom, only a small part of production is exported because of large domestic demand. The main exporting country today is Guatemala, where cardamom cultivation was introduced less than a century ago and the crop is grown entirely for export.
Used Part:	Seeds. Because the seeds lose fragrance rather quickly, the fruits (pods) are normally sold and often used whole, or chopped with the seeds.
Family:	Zingiberaceae (ginger family).
Effect:	Sweet and aromatic, usually described as very pleasant.
Etymology:	The spice has similar names in almost all European languages, e.g. cardamom (German), kardemomme (Norwegian, Danish), cardamomo (Italian, Portuguese, Spanish) and kardamon (Polish, Croatian, Bulgarian and Russian).
	The Greek name kardamōmon is recorded for a spice of Persian origin, but this was probably cress, whereas in Modern Greek the name kardamo can stand for both cardamom and cress. Roman sources tell of the similar spices amomum and cardamomum, both of Eastern origin and probably different varieties of cardamom.
	In the New Testament the name amōmon appears in reference to an aromatic plant and may derive from the adjective amōmos "without reproach". The genus name elettaria is derived from the name in Indian languages, e.g. Hindi elaichi and Punjabi ilaichi. The common source is Sanskrit, where cardamom is called ela or ellka. From the corresponding Dravidian root el, many modern names of cardamom are directly derived, e.g. Tamil elakkai.
Uses:	Cardamom is often called "the third most expensive spice in the world" (after saffron and vanilla) and the high price reflects the reputation of this most pleasantly scented spice. Despite numerous applications in the cooking styles of Sri Lanka, India and Iran, 60% of world production is exported to Arab countries where it is used to prepare coffee. Cardamom-flavoured coffee qahwa al-arabiya is a symbol of Arab hospitality, prepared by adding freshly ground seeds to coffee powder or by steeping a few pods in hot coffee.
	Cardamom is also used for cookery in the spicy mixture baharat from the Arabic peninsular and in the fiery chilli paste zhoug from Yemen. It is often employed for rice-and-meat dishes, e.g. Arabic kabsah and machboos. To prepare these, meats (sometimes vegetables) are braised in a thick, aromatic sauce and uncooked rice is added and cooked slowly so that it absorbs the sauce and all its flavour.
	Indian biryani is made by placing layers of cooked rice and aromatic meat or vegetable stews in a large pot. After addition of dried fruits and nuts, the pot is sealed and heated in the oven so that the different flavours mingle. Cardamom is also popular in North and East Africa, where the population is predominantly Arabic. It appears in the Moroccan mixture ras el hanout and in the Ethiopian spice mix berbere.
	In European cuisines, cardamom is less well-known but appears in biscuit recipes (e.g. German lebkuchen). European use is low, except in Scandinavian countries, where cardamom is popular not only for biscuits and sweet breads but also for pastries and sausages.
	In the Mogul cuisine, cardamom is found in several mild meat dishes in which the pods are fried together with onion, Indian bay leaves and other sweet spices to intensify their fragrance. In Sri Lanka, the pods are added to fiery beef or chicken curries, together with cinnamon. Indian cardamom is slightly smaller than Sri Lankan cardamom, but is generally considered to be more aromatic.
	Cardamom-flavoured sweets are found across India, e.g. gajar halva, a creamy dessert made from milk, grated carrots, palm sugar and ground cardamom. Sometimes curry powder contains small amounts of cardamom and it is also frequently added to the North Indian garam masala, especially in Kashmir where Mogul influence is particularly strong. Kashmiri people like sweet green tea flavoured with cardamom pods.
	Cardamom seeds lose their flavour quickly when ground. Even if left whole, the seeds show a loss of about 40% of the essential oil per year. Therefore, only whole cardamom pods should be bought and the pods crushed prior to use. Green pods are significantly superior in fragrance to the yellow or white bleached ones. Black (or brown) cardamom is a collective name for several cardamom-related plants growing in mountains from Central Africa to Vietnam. Nepalese cardamom is most often traded in the West. The taste of this spice differs significantly from that of green cardamom and neither can act as a substitute for the other.

Celery

I've never personally liked celery or celeriac, even though I've used the herb frequently in professional cooking. It's just not something I would eat by personal choice.

Celery plants	Celeriac cultivar	Celery inflorescence

Celery leaves	Celery stalks	Dried celery fruits (often incorrectly named "celery seeds")

Species:	Apium graveolens.
Origin:	Mediterranean.
Source:	Celery has been cultivated in the Mediterranean region for at least 3,000 years. Cultivation spread to Central and Northern Europe as a consequence of the Capitulare de Villis of Charlemagne.
Used Part:	Leaves and root, both used as vegetable or spice. Celery fruits, often incorrectly termed "seeds", are a strong though rather uncommon spice.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	All plant parts are strongly aromatic. Compared with the wild form and the celery types used by the Romans, modern cultivars are significantly depleted in bitter constituents.
Etymology:	In Latin, the celery was called sedano, which gave rise to celery and its modern cognates in French, German, English and many other European languages and which was handed down directly into modern Italian. An alternative Latin name apium, is found in Spanish apio, Portuguese aipo, Catalan api and the regional German word eppich. The ultimate origin of both names is unknown but may share a common Indo-European root with the Sanskrit ap- "water". The species name graveolens means "strongly smelling" (Latin gravis "grave" or "heavy" and olens "smelling", from the verb olere).
Uses:	Celery has been known in the Mediterranean region for millennia. Celery was considered a holy plant in the Greek classical period and Homer mentions them in his epics. Less known is that celery leaves were worn by the winners of the Nemean Games, similar to the use of bay leaves at the Olympic Games and laurel leaves at the Pythian Games.
	The Romans valued celery more for cooking than for religion, but much superstition was connected with it. The plant was thought to bring bad fortune and was generally associated with death and the underworld.
	Today, celery is a popular herb and vegetable in Europe. The leaves are sometimes chopped and used as a garnish (similar to parsley), but more frequently cooked in soups or sauces to improve the taste. For the latter purpose, the root (often combined with bay leaves or boldo leaves, parsley root and lovage) is suitable. Additionally, the cooked root can be eaten as a vegetable.
	In England and the US, a variety of celery with fleshy stems is more popular than root celery (celeriac), the latter being more commonly used on the European continent although increasingly employed in fine dining restaurants. Celery also plays an important part in the Creole cookery of New Orleans, where celery stalks are used in dishes such as gumbo.
	Celery fruits (sometimes incorrectly called "celery seeds") have a similar but much stronger aroma. They can be ground and mixed with salt to make dosage easier. The fruits are slightly bitter, which limits their usage, but they are a great addition to cooked vegetables. In North-Eastern India, the dried fruits of a related plant radhuni are used as a culinary spice, e.g. in the Bengali spice mixture panch phoron. In the West, celery fruits are sometimes found in commercial curry powder as a substitute for radhuni.

Chameleon Plant

This is a herb that I have not yet had the pleasure of trying.

Chameleon plants	Chameleon plant flower and leaves	Variegated chameleon plant leaves

Species:	Houttuynia cordata.
Origin:	Eastern Asia.
Source:	Chameleon plant grows wild across a vast area from Nepal to Korea via Thailand. The plant is often grown as an ornamental in Europe and the US, the most popular type being variegated cultivars with attractive three-coloured foliage.
Used Part:	Fresh leaves. The rhizome is also aromatic but less commonly used.
Family:	Saururaceae (lizard tail family).
Effect:	Of this species, two different chemotypes are known: The Sino-Vietnamese variety resembles coriander in its aroma and the Japanese variety is characterised by a strange lemon or orange odour that is often compared to ginger. Some have compared the fragrance of chameleon herb with raw meat or fish. The taste is aromatic, close to that of Vietnamese coriander, but with an astringent aftertaste.
Etymology:	The scientific plant name houttuynia is in honour of Dutch biologist Maarten Houttuyn (1720-1798). The name lizard tail is motivated by the acute shape of the leaves in both saururia and houttuynia. The name "chameleon plant" or "chameleon herb" should be used only for the beautifully coloured variety which is most common as an ornamental in the West and whose triple-hued leaves (yellow, red and green) are named after the colour-changing chameleon.
	The English names "fishwort" and "heartleaf" refer to the plant's strong odour and to the heart-shaped leaves, respectively. The Vietnamese name of the plant is diếp cá. The name vap ca, unknown in Vietnam but common in English herbal literature, probably results from writing errors in early Western reports. Species name cordata is Latin for "heart-shaped", a reference to the leaves.
Uses:	The leaves of the chameleon plant are sometimes found in Vietnamese salads and garnishes. In Vietnam, many other fresh herbs (especially Vietnamese coriander) are also used to serve the same purpose. The fresh, aromatic flavour of chameleon leaves makes them a sound, if unusual, ingredient of European salads.

Chaste Tree

I've never come across chaste tree berries either in home cooking or professionally, but I shall certainly look out for them.

Chaste tree	Ripening chaste tree fruits (drupes)	Dried chaste tree fruits

Species:	Vitex agnus-castus.
Origin:	Mediterranean.
Source:	Mediterranean region.
Used Part:	Fruits.
Family:	Verbenaceae (verbena family).
Effect:	Aromatic, but with weak aroma. A slightly pungent and bitter taste.
Etymology:	Chaste tree carries several "sacred" names, which more or less directly refer to its reputation as an anaphrodisiac. In Ancient Greece, the tree was called hagnos "chaste", which apparently the early Christians confused with Latin agnus "lamb", the Christian symbol of purity. Under the name agnus castus "chaste lamb", the plant was used by Christian monks to help suppress desires of the flesh. Many European names allude to chastity.
	Another group of names refers to the Biblical patriarch Abraham, e.g. English "Abraham's balm", German Abrahamsstrauch and Russian Avraamovo derevo. The genus name vitex derives from Latin vitilis "made by plaiting", because the flexible branches of the tree were used in the construction of plaited fences.
Uses:	Dried chaste tree berries have been used in small scale as a pepper substitute, but the taste is rather weak. They have some merit in spice mixtures for barbecued or fried meat. Today, chaste tree berries are nearly forgotten, but they still appear in spice mixtures from Morocco.

Chervil

Chervil is one of a group of herbs in the parsley family with an anise aroma. I'm not fond of any of these herbs.

Chervil plants in flower	Chervil leaf	Dried chervil leaves

Species:	Anthriscus cerefolium.
Origin:	Southern Europe or Western Asia.
Source:	During the Middle Ages, chervil was cultivated widely across Europe under the edict of Charlemagne, the Capitulare de Villis, and it is cultivated in the same areas today.
Used Part:	Leaves. They are normally used fresh, but can be preserved by deep-freezing or by making a pesto-like preparation (as with basil).
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Sweet and aromatic, somewhat intermediate between parsley and anise and similar to cicely.
Etymology:	The Greek name of this plant and origin of the botanical name anthriscus is anthriskos (alternatively anthriskion). The species name cerefolium appears to mean "leaves like wax" and might refer to the bright green colour, but is more possibly a spelling mistake for cherifolium (Greek chairephyllon). The Roman name for chervil was derived from Greek chairein "to delight in" and phyllon "leaf", referring to the pleasant aroma of the leaves.
	Most names in the contemporary tongues of Western Europe derive, as with the English name, from Latin cherifolium, e.g. Swedish körvel, Portuguese cerefolho and French cerfeuil. Northern Europeans often call the plant more precisely as "garden chervil" (e.g. Norwegian hagekjørvel), because it is not indigenous and cannot survive in the wild.
	Since chervil is used and known mostly in Western Europe, languages of other countries often have no native term for that herb, but use descriptive terms that relate chervil to the more widely known relative parsley, e.g. Arabic maqdunis Faranji, Greek Frankomaintanos and Turkish Frenk maydanoz all mean "Frankish parsley". Even in English, chervil is sometimes referred to as "French parsley".
Uses:	Chervil is very popular in Central and Western Europe, the fresh leaves being chopped and added to soups, salads and fish dishes in much the same way as parsley or coriander leaves. Herbal vinegar usually contains a few leaves of chervil.
	Chervil is especially popular in Germany and appears in the famous grüne Soße "green sauce". Chervil is one of the five components of the French fines herbes, a composition of fresh herbs used in France for decoration of cold and warm dishes. Fresh leaves also frequently appear in bouquet garni, although their fragrance does not tolerate long cooking periods very well.
	The dried herb is less aromatic than the fresh, but many compositions of the French herbes de Provence contain dried chervil. In Northern Europe, chervil is often substituted by a related herb, cicely or Spanish chervil, which has a stronger, anise-like aroma.

Chicory

Although there are many recipes using chicory as a leaf or root vegetable, the flavour and aroma of chicory make it a plant that deserves much wider use as a spice.

Chicory plants in flower	Chicory leaves	Endive	Chicory root

Species:	Cichorium intybus.
Origin:	Southern Europe. The related but foreign species endive originated in Southern and Eastern Asia.
Source:	Chicory is cultivated in gravel and chalk areas of England and Ireland and is also widely cultivated across Europe. Endive is cultivated in Europe and Asia.
Used Part:	Root.
Family:	Asteraceae (daisy family).
Effect:	The leaves have a fresh, crisp salad odour and flavour. Roasted ground root has a characteristic warm nutty aroma and a slightly bitter taste.
Etymology:	The botanical name cichorium intybus means "January plant" or "winter salad". It has been suggested that the name succory derives from the Latin succurrere "to run under" due to the depth to which the root penetrates. It may, however be a corruption of ctchorium "chicory", a word of Egyptian origin, which in various forms is the name of the plant in practically every European language. Arabian physicians called it chicourey. Intybus, the species name of chicory, is a modification the Eastern name for the plant, hendibeh, taken into modern Arabic and a term from which the close relative endive derives both its common and specific names.
	Endive and succory are the only two species of the genus cichorium, a plant mentioned in Ancient Greek literature and almost certainly wild chicory, cf. Ancient Greek kikhorion. The names by which the wild plant is known in all the languages of modern Europe are corruptions of the original Greek word, while there are different names in the different countries for the garden endive. The French name barbe de Capucin "Capuchin beard" relates the leaves to the beards of Capuchin monks.
Uses:	Chicory was known to the Romans and was eaten by them as a vegetable or in salads, its use in this way being mentioned by Horace, Virgil, Ovid and Pliny. The plant was introduced across Europe during the Middle Ages, when it was grown in monasteries accordance with Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis.
	In continental Europe, chicory is cultivated as a salad and vegetable and also as cattle fodder. In Belgium, young and tender roots are boiled and eaten with butter like parsnips and form a very palatable vegetable similar to sea kale. The leaves can be cut and used raw but are generally blanched, as unblanched leaves are bitter. This forced foliage is termed by the French barbe de Capucin and forms a favourite winter salad much eaten in France and Belgium.
	A major reason for cultivation is for the root which, although woody in the wild state, becomes large and fleshy under cultivation. Large quantities of the root are cultivated to provide the ground chicory which forms an ingredient of (or adulteration of) coffee. In Belgium, chicory is sometimes even used as a drink without addition of coffee. When infused, chicory gives coffee a bitter taste and dark colour. The French describe it as a contra-stimulante, serving to correct the stimulant effect caused by the principles of coffee.
	Chicory has various medicinal applications and an infusion has been found effective in treatment of jaundice, liver enlargement, gout and rheumatic complaints. Syrup of succory is an excellent laxative for children, as it acts without irritation. From the flowers, a water was distilled to allay inflammation of the eyes and with violets, they were used to make the confection "violet plates" in the days of Charles II. Chicory leaves have also been used as a blue dye.

Chilli

Chilli is the most pungent of the spices and in one variety or other is found almost everywhere in the world, although its uses vary greatly. In this index I have used the convention of referring to hot varieties of capsicum annuum and other capsicum species as chillies, but referring to sweet mild to medium varieties of c. annuum as paprika, for which there is a separate entry.

Habanero chillies	Scotch bonnets	Aji amarillo chillies

Peruvian purple peppers	Jalapeño peppers	Chiltepín peppers

Portuguese piri-piri	Bhut jolokia (ghost chilli)	Central African fatalii chilli	Assorted dried chillies

Species:	The genus is capsicum. There are many varieties of chilli including c. annuum, c. praetermissum, c. cardenasii, c. pubescens and c. frutescens.
Origin:	South America.
Source:	Culinary use of chillies began thousands of years ago in the Andes, but they first left America with Columbus. When first brought to Europe they were not much liked, black pepper being preferred. Chillies brought to Asia by Spanish and Portuguese colonisers became part of local diets because they grew easily, whereas other pungent spices were difficult to cultivate.
	Although most chillies belong to species c. annuum, it makes little sense to discuss mild and hot species together as their applications are distinct and all cuisines except Mexican and Hungarian make a clear distinction between them. The term "paprika" is generally used for the milder types and the term "chilli" used for hotter fruits.
	Chillies are easy to grow and cultivation has spread across the world, especially to regions with tropical climates. India is the main producer, mostly for domestic consumption. There are many cultivars in Latin America (especially Mexico), but most belong to species capsicum annuum.
Used Part:	Fruits (berries often misnamed "pods"), which may be harvested ripe or unripe. Removals of seeds and veins from the fruits reduces the pungency. Chilli leaves are sometimes used in India to flavour drinks.
Family:	Solanacae (nightshade family).
Effect:	Once your palate has become used to the fiery pungency, chilli can surprise you with its variety of flavours - fruity, earthy, smoky, fresh, sweet and flowery. Hotness is measured in Scoville Heat Units (SHU), a subjective measure based on human tasting. The hottest chilli commonly used is capsicum chinense at 200,000 SHU or more, but the world's absolute hottest chilli, bhut jolokia (or naga jolokia) "ghost chilli" scores over 1 million SHU. Thai chillies are 100,000 SHU, but many common varieties such as Italian peperoncino are below 5,000 SHU. Fruits harvested at the same time from the same plant may differ significantly in hotness.
Etymology:	In many European languages the name of chilli is derived from that of black pepper, either as a simple variant as in Italian peperoncino and Hindi mirch (from Sanskrit maricha), or with reference to red colour as in French poivre rouge, to potency as in Spanish pimienta picante or to Spanish introduction as in Dutch spaanse peper. The Chinese la jiao "hot Sichuan pepper" classifies chilli as a hot variant of a native spice and the Italian diavoletto is a form of diavolo "devil".
	In many European languages chilli is known as "Cayenne pepper", e.g. Portuguese pimenta de Caiena. The English name "chilli" is derived from a Mexican root meaning "red" and "chilli" is also the name of the spice in contemporary Mexican Spanish. The English term "chilli pepper" is sometimes a cause of serious culinary errors.
	Species name frutescens means to be shrubby, from the Latin frutex "shrub" and fruticari "to sprout". Species pubescens "hairy" describes the leaves, but species chinense is a misnomer as it has nothing to do with China. The "bird pepper" or "bird chilli" wild forms have small, pungent fruits that separate easily and are dispersed by birds. Species praetermissum is an example of these types, the name being a Latin composite of missus "sent" and praeter "beyond".
Uses:	The genus capsicum comprises five cultivars and some twenty wild species all of which originate in South America. Wild chillies have an intensive heat similar to that of tabasco chillies and are used in cooking in Brazil and Bolivia.
	Species c. annuum is the most important and grows in America and Europe, with both mild and pungent fruits. One of the best known is the Mexican variety jalapeño, named after Xalapa, the capital of Veracruz. Jalapeños have no uniquely characteristic taste, but are more pungent than the large fruit varieties while much milder than typical South American or Asian chillies. Jalapeños are usually eaten unripe (green) and in the fresh state are often coarsely chopped and used to pep up salsas or used as a table condiment. They derive their main attraction not from taste or pungency but from their crispy texture which adds interest to salsa or guacamole.
	The serrano chilli is in both shape and flavour similar to the jalapeño, but is much smaller and also more pungent, reaching almost the heat level of a green Thai chilli. Serranos "mountain chillies" are typical of rural Mexican cooking where they often replace the milder jalapeños. It is difficult to dry ripe, fleshy fruits such as jalapeños, which rot quicker than they dry. To preserve chillies, Mexican Indians developed a smoking procedure that yields products of unique culinary value. Dried and smoked chillies give a very special flavouring and impart an incomparable smoky flavour to the foods.
	The term chipotle denotes any smoked chilli, but the name is now used almost exclusively to mean jalapeños smoked over pecan, hickory or mesquite. Chipotles have become popular in the US and are a key part of the cuisines of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Chipotles may be used in the same way as anchos or mulatos, i.e. rehydrated, pureed and fried to yield spicy products. More commonly, they are steeped in sauces or used in the powdered form, cooked or as a last-minute seasoning. Chipotles en adobo are whole chipotles stewed in a thin, well-seasoned tomato sauce, used as a snack or garnish for those who can tolerate their heat or as a flavouring for other foods. They can be processed with adobo liquid into a puree that makes a very flavourful dip.
	It is often speculated that the varieties called tepín or chiltepín (c. annuum var. aviculare and c. annuum var. glabrisculum), which grow wild in the Northern Mexican desert and Texas, may have been cultivated by Ancient Mexican people and may be the ancestor of all cultivated varieties. Tepín remains a wild plant with the crop gathered, all attempts at commercial cultivation having failed. In addition to tepín, there is a cultivar class called pequín with small, elongated hot fruits. There are also types with long, pointed fruit which are of biting heat, e.g. chilli de arbol.
	In Mexico, there is a continuous spectrum of peppers from the very mild to the very hot. All of them are normally referred to as chillies and they are of the same botanical species (except Yucatan habanero chillies, which are c. chinense). This contrasts with other countries, where only hot "chilli" and mild "paprika" types are known, but no intermediates.
	The hardy c. pubescens has thick-flesh pods unsuitable for drying and is the hottest chilli large enough for stuffing. The most common cultivar is golden-yellow ají amarillo used to flavour the Andean speciality cuy (broiled or fried guinea pig). A form of c. baccatum known as piri píri has bell-shaped fruits and is extremely popular in Portugal and its former colonies.
	Species c. chinense is known for its pungent, aromatic fruits. 6,500 years of cultivation has resulted in different colours (orange, red, brown) and shapes (lantern, squash, pointed). Examples include habanero in Cuba and Congo pepper in Trinidad. A group of yellow chillies is referred to as ají limo. Several chinense cultivars were introduced by repatriated slaves and are important in the cuisines of West Africa. The least important species is c. frutescens, whose best-known cultivar is Mexican tabasco.
	Chillies can improve dishes whether used fresh or dried, ripe or unripe, cooked or raw. With experience, most people develop the ability to discern subtle flavours behind the heat. To an experienced palate, chilli acts as a flavour-enhancing seasoning. In Latin America, regions have their own chillies differing in hotness and flavour and each is used for specific dishes. In Asia, however, chillies have a more uniform flavour and are used for their pungency. De-veining to control heat, as in Latin America and Europe, is unusual in Asia.
	In South-East Asia, ripe chillies are available all year and are preferred fresh. Thai curry paste is a mixtures of chilli and other fresh spices. Despite its often searing heat, Thai food is also aromatic due to use of fresh spices and herbs. Examples are gai pad krapao (a chicken dish with chillies and basil) and laab (a Northern Thai salad). Chilli-based condiments are typical in Thailand and the Indonesian fruit salad rujak (mango, palm sugar and chilli) makes an unforgettable impression. Indonesian hot chilli sauce sambal is provided at the table to adjust hotness and sambal is used in the rice dish nasi goreng.
	Most Cantonese recipes do not use chilli, though it is sometimes served in sauces and dips. La jiao jiang is similar to Indonesian sambal ulek, but contains vegetable oil. In Sichuan and Hunan in China, chillies and garlic are popular and liberally used in stir-fries. Tianjan province is known for its flavourful chillies sold dried as tien tsin.
	Although Vietnamese food is only moderately spiced, chilli is available at South Vietnamese tables either fresh or in the fish sauce nuoc mam.
	In Japan, tōgarashi "chilli" plays only a minor role in condiments and for spicing soups, as the hotness is incompatible with the subtle flavours on which Japanese cuisine depends. In neighbouring Korea, chillies are much loved and are used ripe and dried or in form of the chilli bean paste kochu jang. Kim chi "pickled vegetables" form an important part of Korean diet. Most types of kim chi are hot due to the use of dried chillies, together with garlic, ginger, sugar, soy sauce, herbs and sesame oil.
	South Indian and Sri Lankan cuisines use fresh green chillies in large amounts for stir-fries and deep-fried lentil snacks. For curries, dried red chillies are usually preferred. Quantities are often much greater than the most experienced Western palates can tolerate. In North India and Central Asia, chillies are normally used dried. Sold whole or ground at the market, they are fiery, intensively coloured and highly aromatic. For most applications they are fried in ghee "clarified butter" so the pungency is distributed through the food. Chillies from Kashmir have the best reputation, with a deep red colour and fragrance comparable to the best quality Hungarian sweet paprika.
	Chillies appear in many spice mixtures such as Indian garam masala, Ethiopian berbere and Arab baharat. Asian examples include Japanese shichimi togarashi and Thai curry paste. Some spice preparations are made predominantly of chilli. These include Asian condiment sambal ulek, hot pepper sauces of Mexico and Tunisian harissa, often served as a condiment for cous-cous.
	Although chillies are most popular in hot climates, an exception is Tibet. Tibetan food is mildly seasoned, but fiery chilli condiments are always available. A local recipe is churu sibeh, chillies mixed with pungent mould-ripened blue cheese. As it is difficult to ripen chillies at Tibetan altitudes, locals often employ unripe green chillies, which lack aroma but not hotness.
	Most European countries do not use chilli in traditional dishes. The Mediterranean states and Hungary have a chilli tradition, but food is rarely very hot even in these countries. Consequently, there are only a few chilli cultivars in Europe, one being the Portuguese piri píri. Many hot chillies are used dried, e.g. Southern Italian peperoncino and piment d'espelette from the Basque Country. Also notable is the so-called "Hungarian cherry pepper", a compromise between pungency and flavour. This and other milder varieties are classed as paprika.

Chives

All members of the onion family have different but complementary flavours and chives are no exception. This is the onion perhaps best suited to accompany cheese.

Flowering chive plants	Garlic chives	Chopped chive leaves

Species:	Allium schoenoprasum.
Origin:	Probably Central Asia.
Source:	Today the plant grows practically everywhere in Europe, even at high altitude, having been introduced to northern climes when ordered to be grown in medieval monasteries in accordance with the Capitulare de Villis of Charlemagne.
Used Part:	The long, tube-shaped leaves which are used fresh (or deep-frozen).
Family:	Alliaceae (onion family).
Effect:	Similar to onion, but substantially less dominant and more subtle.
Etymology:	The English "chive" derives from Latin cepa "onion" via Middle English cyve or cheve, loaned from Old French cive. The singular "chive" is used for the plant, whereas the spice is usually referred to as plural form "chives".
	The botanical species name schoenoprasum means "rush-like leek" from Greek schoinos "rush" and prason "leek". For the etymology of botanical genus name allium, see garlic.
	In many languages, chives are denoted as a "grassy" variant of their larger relatives, leek, onion and garlic. Examples are Swedish gräslök, Norwegian grasløk and Finnish ruohosipuli. Similar are Catalan all junciforme "rush-shaped garlic" and Arabic waraq basal "onion-leaf". Other languages use geographical epithets, e.g. Bulgarian luk Sibirski "Siberian onion" or Turkish Frenk soğanı "French onion".
	In the Romance languages the names of chives are often diminutives meaning "little onion", e.g. French civette, Spanish cebollana, Italian erba cipollina and Portuguese cebolinha. German schnittlauch contains the verbal stem schneid meaning "cut", because, unlike onion and garlic, chives are harvested by cutting the leaves. The name has entered some Slavonic languages (Czech šnytlík and Russian shnit-luk).
Uses:	The subtle and pleasant taste of chives makes them an extremely popular culinary ingredient of Central and Western European cuisines. Fresh chives, finely chopped, are frequently sprinkled over soups, vegetable stews and sauces and dishes based on egg or yoghurt greatly profit from the addition of chives. Boiling, frying or baking destroys most of the fine aroma of chives.
	Although more often used alone than combined with other fresh herbs, a mixture with chervil, tarragon and parsley works well and is known in French cuisine as fines herbes. The mixture is frequently suggested for subtly-flavoured cold and warm dishes such as salads, scrambled eggs, fish and poultry. Less recommendable is the combination of chives with garlic, which overpowers the delicate aroma of the chives. Better suited is bear's garlic with its significantly less dominant fragrance.
	In the mountain climate of the Alps, chive is one of the few herbs that can be grown locally and it enjoys significant popularity. Black rye bread with butter and chopped chives tastes excellent with Tyrolean butter.
	Another field of application for chives is cheese, especially cottage cheese and other very mild varieties. Cottage cheese flavoured with chives and optionally other fresh herbs is a popular spring dish in Central Europe. The spice is normally used fresh because it loses all its flavour by drying.
	Related species are used in the cuisines of China, Tibet and parts of South-East Asia but are mostly unavailable in the West. Chives make a good substitute for these and are often asked for in Western cookbooks.
	In Chinese cooking, flat leaves of Himalayan garlic chives a. tuberosum are often employed in the same way as chives in European cooking. In Nepal, the chive relative a. wallichii known as jimbu "Himalaya onion" is often used for cooking, especially for flavouring dhal. Uniquely, jimbu is usually employed as dried leaves fried in ghee to develop their flavour.

Cicely

As I don't like anise-like herbs, cicely is definitely not amongst my favourite spices!

Cicely plants in flower	Ripening cicely fruits	Cicely leaves and flowers

Species:	Myrrhis odorata.
Origin:	North-Western Europe.
Source:	Cicely is a common garden plant in parts of Northern and Western Europe, mainly cultivated in Scandinavia.
Used Part:	Leaves, mostly used fresh. The unripe fruits are a good substitute for anise.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	A strong fragrance reminiscent of liquorice or anise, with a sweet taste (especially the stem). Both fragrance and taste are strongest in the unripe seeds. The fruits and leaves of several aromatic plants from the parsley family share a fragrance often referred to as "anise-like". Of this group, cicely is the strongest, anise slightly weaker and fennel the weakest.
Etymology:	The English name "cicely" originates from the obscure Greek plant name siseli. German süßdolde "sweet umbel" refers to both the sweet taste and the umbel-shaped flower cluster.
	The botanical genus name myrrhis derives from Greek myrrhis which denotes both an unidentified plant and an aromatic oil from Western Asia and is probably related to Greek myron "balm". The scientific species name odoratus is Latin for "scented".
	Comparisons with chervil appear in the German myrrhenkerbel "myrrh-chervil" and translations of "Spanish chervil" that occur in many languages, e.g. Norwegian Spansk kjørvel, as the plant originates from North-Western Europe.
Uses:	Cicely has relatively little importance in today's cooking. Since it is tolerant to cold it is a useful herb for cooks in Scandinavia, where it provides fresh fragrant leaves nearly all year even in Iceland and the Faroe islands. Because of the sweet fragrance, cicely fruits are a good substitute for anise, fennel or liquorice. The leaves may be used as a replacement for chervil, although they give a much more dominant aroma.
	Cicely is an essential ingredient of the fines herbes of French cuisine. In Scandinavia, cicely is common to flavour stewed fruits. Cicely fruits and stalks may also partly substitute for sugar because of their naturally sweet taste.

Cinnamon, Chinese

I've rarely if ever come across Chinese cinnamon in the UK as we tend to use Indonesian cinnamon and, more recently, Sri Lankan cinnamon.

Chinese cinnamon tree	Chinese cinnamon flowers	Chinese cinnamon quills	Ground Chinese cinnamon

Species:	Cinnamomum cassia.
Origin:	South-East Asia.
Source:	Southern China, Burma, Laos and Vietnam. Commercial cultivation is restricted to China and Vietnam.
Used Part:	Stem bark.
Family:	Lauraceae (laurel family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic, sweet and warm but slightly bitter and mucilaginous. Compared to Sri Lankan cinnamon, Chinese cinnamon tastes slightly bitter and astringent and it lacks the "liveliness" of Sri Lankan cinnamon.
Etymology:	The English common name "cassia" indirectly derives from Greek kasia which is probably a loan from Semitic traders (cf. Old Hebrew qesīāh). Its ultimate origin is not fully clear but the name, like the spice, probably derives from China. It has been suggested that cassia might be related to the name of the Khasi tribe in North-Eastern India and Bangladesh. For the derivation of cinnamon and similar forms, see Sri Lankan cinnamon and for another group of names exemplified by kaneel and cannelle see Indonesian cinnamon.
	In the area from Central Asia to North India, cinnamon spice was traditionally imported from China. Local languages do not distinguish between Chinese and other types of cinnamon, but employ the same name for all cinnamon types. Bengali darchini, Hindi and Puijabi dhal Chini, Urdu dar Chini and Farsi darchi all mean "Chinese wood".
	The name was transferred to a number of unrelated languages: Turkish tarçını, Azerbaijani darçın, Kazakh darshin, Georgian darichini, Arabic darsin and also Armenian tarjin. The "cinnamon" sold and used in today's India and Central Asia may derive from either variety. Adulteration is common, e.g. by using the bark of the tree that yields Indian bay leaves.
Uses:	Chinese cinnamon was the first cinnamon species to make its way to Europe, at least since Alexander the Great. Before this time, Chinese cinnamon was transported to Egypt (where it was part of mummification mixtures for the pharaohs) and to Palestine (resulting in several mentions in the Bible).
	Today, Chinese cinnamon is the preferred cinnamon species from peninsular South-East Asia to Central Asia. In Western countries, Sri Lankan cinnamon is usually preferred for its purer and less harsh taste. Although Chinese cinnamon is common in the US, it is unavailable in Europe except in Chinese markets.
	In Chinese cookery, Chinese cinnamon is an essential ingredient, used in the famous Chinese five spice and in mixtures of dried spices for slow-simmered hotpots. Together with other spices, Chinese cinnamon is important for Chinese cooking techniques that use large amounts of aromatic liquid as a cooking medium. The two best-known of these are hongshao "red braising" and shui lu "master sauce cooking".
	Red braising means slow cooking in a mixture of dark soy sauce and pastes (often sweet bean paste, hoisin, sugar and rice wine flavoured with fresh ginger, onion, garlic, Chinese cinnamon, star anise, orange peel, fennel, Sichuan pepper and/or liquorice. By this type of cooking, the foods acquire a deep reddish-brown hue. The "master sauce cooking" technique uses a strongly salted and spiced broth (shui lu "salt water") as cooking medium. Flavourings for a master sauce are rice wine, ginger and the red braising spices. The more often the master sauce is used, the more aromatic and "masterly" it tastes.

Cinnamon, Indonesian

Indonesian cinnamon is commonly available in Britain and can be distinguished from other types by its physical appearance - rough-shaped, thick and dark-coloured bark pieces or stiff quills as opposed to the much lighter-coloured, more brittle quills of Sri Lankan cinnamon.

Indonesian cinnamon tree	Indonesian cinnamon leaves and flower buds	Indonesian cinnamon pieces

Species:	Cinnamomum burmannii.
Origin:	South-East Asia.
Source:	The Indonesian cinnamon plant is of Malaysian distribution and was first cultivated in Western Sumatra in the region close to the city of Padang. Most Indonesian cinnamon is still grown in Sumatra today.
Used Part:	Stem bark.
Family:	Lauraceae (laurel family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic. As with Sri Lankan cinnamon it shows only marginal bitterness and astringency, but it tastes darker and lacks the exciting overtones that are unique to the Sri Lankan variety.
Etymology:	Most languages have no separate words for different types of cinnamon and distinctions are made by the use of qualifying adjectives, e.g. "Sri Lankan cinnamon", "Chinese cinnamon". Some names of cinnamon in European languages relate to Latin canella "small tube or pipe", referring to the form of cinnamon quills and this is also the root of English "cannula", French cannelle, Spanish canela, Finnish kaneli, Dutch kaneel, Latvian kanēlis and Bulgarian and Greek kanela. Similar is Portuguese canforeira "cinnamon tree" which literally means "bearer of pipes".
	Species name burmannii is a tribute to Dutch botanist Johannes Burmann (1707–1779), Professor of Botany at Amsterdam University and friend and collaborator of Linnaeus.
Uses:	Indonesian cinnamon comes close to the best Sri Lankan quality and is often falsely traded as such. Although most agree that Sri Lankan cinnamon is the best, Sri Lankan cinnamon and Indonesian cinnamon are rated similarly and above the Chinese cinnamon variety in Europe. In the US, Chinese cinnamon is the more common quality, although for baking many cooks switch to Sri Lankan cinnamon. Chinese cinnamon has a coarser fragrance, a bitter and astringent taste and contains much more mucilaginous components. In Europe, Vietnamese cinnamon has an even poorer reputation.
	Surprisingly, Indonesians do not use cinnamon frequently. It sometimes appears in sweets or is added in small amounts to Indian or Arabic influenced meat stews (a well-known example is rendang, a spicy beef stew very popular in Western Sumatra).
	Whereas Sri Lankan cinnamon is traded in form of slender and fragile quills, composed of very thin light reddish-brown bark layers, Indonesian cinnamon is much thicker, darker in colour and less easy to break. Chinese cinnamon or cassia is normally not peeled as carefully as the other varieties and the outer surface often looks uneven and rough, dark brown in colour, thick and brittle.

Cinnamon, Sri Lankan

Sri Lankan cinnamon is my favourite variety, with its delicate sweet aroma and flavour. To me, the smell of Sri Lankan cinnamon cooking with cloves is one of the great defining sensory experiences of the kitchen.

Sri Lankan cinnamon tree	Sri Lankan cinnamon leaves and flower buds	Sri Lankan cinnamon quills

Species:	Cinnamomum zeylanicum.
Origin:	Southern Asia.
Source:	Cinnamomum zeylanicum originates from the island of Sri Lanka and is also native to South-Western India and to part of Burma. Attempts have been made to transplant cinnamon trees to other tropical countries, with success only in the Seychelles. Related species are found in Indonesia, Vietnam and China.
Used Part:	Stem bark.
Family:	Lauraceae (laurel family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic, sweet, pleasant and warm and but hardly bitter or astringent. Compared to its relatives, Sri Lankan cinnamon has a fresh or "lively" tone that is missing in other cinnamon species.
Etymology:	The English name "cinnamon", along with the German zimt, Lithuanian cinamonas, Polish cynamon, Croatian cimet and other names derive from Latin cinnamomum, which was itself a loan from Greek kinnamōmon. The origin of the word is supposed to be Semitic, cf. Old Hebrew quinnāmōn. It is also possible that the word is ultimately loaned from an early Malaysian language, cf. the modern name kayu manis "sweet wood" in Malay and Indonesian.
	For names like Dutch kaneel and French cannelle, see Indonesian cinnamon. For another class of names, exemplified by Hindi dhal Chini, Farsi darchin and Turkish tarçını, see Chinese cinnamon. Species name zeylanicum is Latin for Sri Lankan (and the former English name for the territory, "Ceylon").
Uses:	Cinnamon is an ancient spice mentioned in the Old Testament, although only Chinese cinnamon (cassia) was known in the West before the 16th century. Compared to the Chinese species, Sri Lankan cinnamon has a more delicate aroma and is the dominating quality on the Western market.
	The cuisines of Sri Lanka and India make heavy use of this spice, both for the fiery beef curries of Sri Lanka and for the subtle, fragrant rice dishes (biryanis) of Mogul North Indian cuisine. Cinnamon is also widely in use for flavouring tea and is popular in all regions where Persian or Arab influence was felt, including Western, South-Western and Central Asia, Northern and Eastern Africa. In India, the bark pieces fried in hot oil until they unroll to release fragrance. At this point the temperature is lowered by adding other components, typically tomatoes, onion and/or yoghurt. The cinnamon chunks may be removed before serving, but are more frequently kept as a fragrant decoration.
	Although cinnamon was very popular in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries, its importance is now considerably diminished and the main application today is in desserts and stewed fruits, with cinnamon rarely used for native European spicy dishes. In most other countries powdered cinnamon is preferred, added shortly before serving as it becomes bitter after some cooking time. Powdered cinnamon is contained in several spice mixtures including North Indian garam masala, curry powder and Arabic baharat. Arabic African spice mixes include Moroccan ras el hanout, Tunisian gâlat dagga and Ethiopian berbere. Sri Lankan cinnamon is an optional ingredient for French quatre épices, but Chinese cinnamon is used for Chinese five spice. Cinnamon is popular in Mexico and is used in mole sauces.
	The so-called "cinnamon buds" are the unripe fruits harvested shortly after the blossom and are similar to cloves. These buds are less aromatic than the bark but have an odour that is mild and sweet. To release fragrance they are finely ground. Their usage has only regional importance in China and India (Gujarat).

Cloves

Cloves no longer have the importance in European cooking that they once had, when Asian islands were colonised in order to secure supplies to the West. But used selectively and carefully, clove is a fantastic and quite irreplaceable spice.

Clove tree	Ripening clove fruits	Dried cloves

Species:	Syzygium aromaticum.
Origin:	Eastern Asia.
Source:	The clove tree is endemic in the North Moluccas in Indonesia and was cultivated by the Dutch. Only after the end of Dutch monopoly in the 18th century were clove trees introduced to other countries. The most important production area today is the island of Pemba in Tanzania and cloves are also grown on Madagascar and other Eastern African islands. Indonesian clove production declined sharply after World War II but has recently recovered.
Used Part:	Buds. Essential oil is also produced by the leaves although they have no culinary use. The ripe fruits, known as mother of clove have only local use.
Family:	Myrtaceae (myrtle family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic with a very intensive fragrance and a fiery and burning taste.
Etymology:	The English name "clove", along with the Spanish clavo, Catalan clau and Portuguese cravinho derive from Latin clavus "nail", due to the shape. The word entered English via the Old French clou and is related to the verb cleave and therefore also to "clove", as in a "clove of garlic". Most Germanic tongues have a word for clove related to German nagel "nail", e.g. German nelke, Danish nellike, Swedish neijlikor and Dutch nagel. In Western to Central Asia there are related names meaning "nail", e.g. Georgian mikhaki, Farsi mikhak and Turkish mıhlamak. The Basque iltze-kanela literally means "cinnamon nails". The word also appears in the Old Testament, but only meaning "finger nail" and "tip" rather than in reference to the spice. The botanical genus name syzygium derives from Greek syn "together" and zygon "yoke", for the same reason.
	In Old Greek cloves were known as karyophyllon which is a compound of two Greek nouns, karyon "nut" and phyllon "leaf". Cloves were traded in the seaports of South India and modern Dravidian languages still have similar names, e.g. Tamil karambu and Thai kanphlu. Japanese kurobu, on the other hand, is an adaptation of the English word "clove". Karyophyllonis was transferred, via Latin gariofilum, to the Romance languages, e.g. Italian garofano and French girofle. Further related words for clove are Turkish karanfil, Bulgarian karamfil and several Semitic names, e.g. Arabic qaranful and Amharic krinfud.
	In some languages, cloves share the name with the ornamental carnation dianthus caryophyllatus, e.g. German nelke, Italian garofano, Greek garifallo and Russian gvozdika. Another group of names for clove are found in India, e.g. Hindi and Punjabi laung, Urdu lung and Bengali labango.The Chinese term for cloves is ding xiang, loaned to Vietnamese as dinh huong and to Korean as chong-hyang. The first part of the name, ding, means "small" and also denoted a specific cutting technique to chop meats into rather small pieces. The second element xiang means "spice" or "fragrance" and is often found in the names of aromatics and well-flavoured foods.
	The botanical species name aromaticum, from Latin aromaticus and Greek armatikōs, means "aromatic" or "fragrant".
Uses:	Cloves are an ancient spice and, because of their exceptional aromatic strength, have always been held in high esteem by cooks in Europe, North Africa the greater part of Asia.
	Trade between the "clove island" Ternate and mainland China goes back at least 2,500 years. In China, cloves were not only used for cooking but also for deodorisation with anyone having an audience with the emperor chewing cloves to prevent any undesired smell. Arab traders brought cloves to the Mediterranean during the 1st or 2nd century BC.
	When Europeans found the clove-producing islands, they took great interest in securing a constant spice supply. The Portuguese, Spanish, British and Dutch all built fortresses in the 16th and 17th century.
	Cloves are rarely used in the cuisine of Indonesia. Nonetheless, Indonesians are the main consumers of cloves and use nearly 50% of the world's production in cigarettes. Their sweet, incense-like aroma pervades Indonesian restaurants, buses, markets and offices.
	Cloves are much loved by the Chinese, play an important role in Sri Lankan cooking and are extensively used in the Mogul cuisine of North India. They enjoy high popularity in the Middle East and many Arab countries and are a common spice in North Africa. In all these countries, they are preferred for meat and rice dishes. In Ethiopia, coffee is often roasted together with some cloves in the so-called "coffee ceremony".
	Cloves have less use in Europe, where their strong flavour is not so much appreciated. They are much used for special types of sweets or sweet breads and used with cinnamon for stewed fruits and rice. In France, cloves are used in long-simmered meat stews and hearty meat broths. In England, they are most popular in pickles.
	Many spice mixtures contain cloves. They form an essential part of Chinese five spice, frequently appear in curry powder, determine the character of the Mogul variant of garam masala and are a component of the Arabic baharat. Mixtures from Africa containing cloves are Moroccan ras el hanout, Tunisian gâlat dagga and Ethiopian berbere.
	A well-known European spice mixture depending on cloves is the French quatre épices. Cloves have also established themselves in Mexican mole sauces. The taste of the famous Worcestershire sauce is dominated by clove aroma. Besides cloves, the sauce contains garlic, tamarind, paprika, chilli, fish extract, soy sauce, treacle, vinegar and salt. There is no "authentic recipe" and different vendors sell their own creations.

Coconut

In the UK we most often encounter coconut at the fairground, but it is a staple ingredient of many Asian cuisines and is a ubiquitous component of the cuisine of Sri Lanka.

Coconut tree with ripening fruits	Split coconut fruit	Desiccated coconut

Species:	Cocos nucifera.
Origin:	South-East Asia.
Source:	The coconut tree is native to the Malaysian peninsular of South-East Asia and is now cultivated in tropical regions all round the world. There has been speculation about a Polynesian or American origin of coconut, but this is almost certainly wrong. The plant was probably first cultivated in India or South-East Asia, emigrants from these countries bringing the coconut tree to almost everywhere in the tropics of Asia and Oceania. There is no evidence of coconut having grown in America before the arrival of the Spanish, despite the fact that the closest relatives of the coconut palm are of American distribution.
Used Part:	Seed tissue (endosperm), used fresh or dried. The sour liquid inside the young seed, referred to as "coconut water", is a common refresher in tropical countries and should not be confused with coconut milk. Coconut water is rarely used for cooking.
Family:	Arecaceae (palm family).
Effect:	The endosperm has a pleasant, mild and nutty fragrance and a unique taste, with a hint of sweetness.
Etymology:	Coconut and its relatives in other European languages is derived from Spanish coco, from Portuguese côco, "bogeyman", "spectre" or "goblin", with reference to the three marks on each coconut that make it look like an eerie face.
	The species name nucifera is a neo-Latin formation meaning "bearing nuts" (nux "nut" and ferre "carry" or "bear"). Almost all names of coconut in Indic languages are related, e.g. Hindi nariyal, Urdu nariyel, Punjabi narial, Bengali narokel and Farsi nargil. These and other names can be traced back to Sanskrit narikela, whose origin is not Indo-European. The first element resembles several Australasian names, e.g. Tagalog niyog, Malaysian nyiur and Hawaiian niu. In Tamil, the related word ney has the meaning "semi-solid fat", paralleling similar constructions for other oilseeds. The Armenian name Hentgagan engouz literally means "Indian nut" and some languages use similar designations for nutmeg, although neither plant originates from India.
Uses:	The coconut palm is characteristic of tropical coasts, can be found world-wide and its role in the cuisines of tropical peoples cannot be overestimated. Furthermore, coconut products have been well-established in the production of sweets where their importance is not restricted to low latitudes.
	Cooks in tropical Asia make multiple uses of coconut products. Coconut water is drunk directly from the unripe fruit, the grated and dried endosperm (khopra) is used to thicken sauces and the oil pressed from the endosperm is a popular frying medium. From the sweet juice obtained by cutting young stems, palm sugar is obtained (gula merah in Indonesia and jaggery in India).
	Alternatively, the sap can be fermented to yield the alcoholic beverage "toddy". From toddy, the highly intoxicating drink arrack can be distilled and further fermentation gives the mild palm vinegar. The coconut product most important for cooking is coconut milk, called santen in Indonesia and gata in the Philippines.
	Coconut milk is made by processing grated coconut with hot water, thereby extracting oil and aroma compounds. The result is a milky-white, opaque emulsion (approximately 20% fat) with a sweet coconut flavour. After some time, fat and water separate, yielding thick "coconut cream". Coconut milk is an extremely important ingredient for many cuisines of Asia. In the Western kitchen the lengthy preparation time is generally avoided by use of industrially produced coconut extracts "creamed coconut" sold in blocks to be dissolved in hot water.
	Gravies containing desiccated coconut are popular in South India (sometimes in combination with yoghurt). Desiccated coconut is commonly ground together with asafoetida, cumin, coriander seeds, chillies and toasted lentils or beans to yield spice pastes (masalas) characteristic of a particular dish. Coconut oil is the most typical frying medium in South India.
	A typical example of a vegetarian specialty containing coconut is bese bele, a dry dish typical of Bangalore made from vegetables, legumes and rice. Boiled vegetables are mixed with pureed lentils and flavoured with tart tamarind water and a sophisticated spice mixture made from lentils, split peas, coriander, cumin, fenugreek, chillies and shredded coconut, toasted brown together with smaller quantities of cinnamon and cloves. After steamed rice is added, the dish obtains additional flavours from curry leaves fried quickly in butter.
	Coconut products are ubiquitous in the cuisine of Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan curries use coconut milk to thicken, add body and intensify the flavour when combined with toasted coriander and cumin seeds, curry leaves, pandanus leaves, lemon grass, cinnamon and cardamom. The bowl-shaped breads of Sri Lanka (hoppers) are composed of rice flour, coconut milk and yeast. From these ingredients a thin pouring dough is made which is then fried to a crisp texture.
	Coconut is of importance on the Indonesian islands. A specialty of Western Sumatra is rendang, comprising beef or buffalo cubes cooked in coconut milk together with spices. Due to the long cooking period, even a tough bull is made tender and an unusual taste achieved. In most other recipes, Indonesians prefer short cooking times for cooking vegetables or meats in coconut milk.
	In Thailand, the term for curry (kaeng or gaeng) almost always refers to food cooked in coconut milk. The aromatic pungency of Thai food is achieved by curry pastes, e.g. gaeng prik made by grinding chillies with fresh ginger, fingerroot, greater galangale, garlic and onion plus dried cumin and coriander seeds, typically with shrimp paste or dried fish enhanced with kaffir lime leaves, lemon grass and coriander leaves. Several standard recipes of curry pastes are known by their colours. Green curry paste prik gaeng kiaw contains green chillies, much garlic and coriander leaves. Red curry paste prik gaeng diang is much hotter, as it derives its colour from ripe red chillies dried and toasted before usage. Thai masaman curry paste is a milder red paste (introduced by Muslim traders from the Indian subcontinent) that contains aromatic spices in the Indian fashion (cinnamon, cloves, star anise and toasted ground coriander). A typical Thai recipe might ask for beef or chicken meat and several types of vegetable (aubergines, potatoes, bamboo shoots). Thai curries have rather thin, almost soupy, structure.
	Coconut milk not only looks like milk but may be used as an alternative for milk in Western desserts (e.g. continental pudding), thus giving an unusual and exotic flavour. Coconut milk can also be used to make ice creams. Coconut aroma goes well with chocolate and it may be combined with other spices to create unusual sweets. Indonesians use pandanus leaves for this purpose.

Coriander, Bolivian

I've never experienced this variety of coriander, but I'm sure I will one day when I visit South America.

Bolivian coriander plant	Bolivian coriander leaves and flower buds	Bolivian coriander leaf showing oil glands

Species:	Porophyllum ruderale.
Origin:	South America.
Source:	Porophyllum ruderale is a culinary and medicinal herb originating in Bolivia, where the native Quechua people call it quillquiña (also spelled quirquiña) or more commonly killi and have eaten it as an important part of their diet for millennia. Bolivian coriander also grows wild in Mexico where it is known as pápaloquelite (often abbreviated to pápalo) or tepegua and it is cultivated in Northern parts of South America as well as in Central America and the southern parts of North America. It is found wild (escaped from cultivation) in Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, but is typically not used by local inhabitants who substitute Mexican imports instead.
Used Part:	Leaves, normally only used fresh.
Family:	Asteraceae (daisy family).
Effect:	As with cilantro or common coriander, Bolivian coriander is described as fresh, green, tangy and even citrusy. The herb is similarly pungent and, like common coriander, is an acquired taste.
Etymology:	Genus name porophyllum means "porous leaf", from the Greek pōros "pore" and phyllon "leaf", a description of the plant's leaves (cf. the English common name "poreleaf"). Species name ruderale is derived from New Latin ruderalis, from Old Latin rudera and -alis, meaning "a plant growing in rubbish or in a waste place".
	The name pápalo is derived from Náhuatl (the original Aztec tongue) pápaloquelite, from papalotl "butterfly" and quelite "a plant with edible leaves" or "greens". In Spanish the plant is referred to as mampuitu which translates to "skunk", c.f. Náhuatl epatl "skunk".
Uses:	Bolivian coriander or quillquiña is an herbaceous plant whose leaves can be used as a seasoning. The taste has been described as "somewhere between rocket, coriander and rue". The plant is commonly grown in Mexico and South America.
	In Mexico the leaves are typically used raw to flavour tacos filled with carnitas "pork" or guacamole. It is also used in a Puebla specialty which uses a semita roll stuffed with meat avocado tomatoes and sometimes chillies. The leaves are used fresh with soups and stews, grilled meats, salsas, beans and salads in much the same way as common coriander is used elsewhere in the world.
	A typical recipe for pápalo salsa involves mixing roasted and deseeded chopped chillies, roasted and deseeded green bell peppers, chopped green tomatoes, roasted garlic cloves, pápalo leaves, lemon juice, vegetable oil, salt and minced onion, blended and chilled for an hour before serving.
	As the flavorants of Bolivian coriander are volatile, the leaves should be used raw and in any event not be cooked for more than a few seconds.

Coriander, Common

This is my dad's favourite herb. When he was a student he knew about ground coriander "dhania" from eating out in Indian restaurants, but first tasted the fresh herb in a bowl of soup in a Vietnamese restaurant on his honeymoon in Paris. He's been in love with it ever since and eats it by the bunch.

Coriander plants in flower	Coriander flowers and ripening fruits	Coriander stalks and leaves

Thai coriander with roots (rak pak chee)	Ripe coriander fruits (incorrectly named "seeds")	Ground coriander fruits

Species:	Coriandrum sativum.
Origin:	Probably Eastern Mediterranean or Western Asia.
Source:	Common coriander is native to the Mediterranean region but is widely cultivated across Europe, Asia and Africa. Its spread northwards into Europe resulted from the Capitulare de Villis of Charlemagne, which ordered the growth of this and other herbs in medieval monastic gardens. The coriander species commonly grown in Central Europe and Russia, var. microcarpum, has smaller fruits and contains more essential oil than the oriental type, var. vulgare, which is cultivated for fruits and leaves.
Used Part:	Fruits, leaves and root (the latter only in Thailand). Fruits and leaves have totally different flavours and cannot substitute for each other. The term culantro, properly meaning long coriander, is sometimes misapplied to common coriander leaves, especially in regions where long coriander is not known.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Most people agree that the aroma of the fruits is pleasant. It is usually described as warm, nutty and spicy and some even find an orange-like quality in it. There is, however, much disagreement about the flavour of common coriander leaves, roots and unripe fruits. Europeans are split, with some finding coriander leaves displeasing but many enjoying them. In Asia, Latin America and Africa almost everybody loves coriander leaves and they are described as fresh, green, tangy and even citrusy. This has led to a theory that the taste for coriander has a genetic component, although there is no proof of this and dislike is probably cultural rather than genetic.
Etymology:	The Ancient Greek name koriannon is derived from koris "bug" because of the aroma of the leaves. It was loaned to Latin coriandrum and eventually entered European languages. German wanzendill "bug's dill" and wanzenkümmel "bug's caraway" may be translations of the Greek, or may have arisen independently. The names are derogatory and reflect the critical view of common coriander among Central and Northern Europeans.
	Because of their similar shape and usage, common coriander leaves are named after parsley, often with a geographic epithet, with "Indian parsley" and "Chinese parsley" the most common. The Hungarian name cigánypetrezselyem "gypsies' parsley" refers to the plant as the preferred salad leaf of the Romany minority.
	In Latin America and the US, common coriander leaves are commonly known by the name cilantro, which may be derived directly from a Latin variant with light vowel, e.g. Medieval Latin celiandrum. Another explanation is that the Spanish culantro was later changed to cilantro for some reason. In any case, culantro exists in today's Latin American Spanish but usually denotes the similar herb long coriander. Confusingly, on some Caribbean islands, long coriander is known as cilantro and common coriander as cilantrillo.
	The species name sativum is Latin for "sown" or "cultivated".
Uses:	Common coriander fruits are a common spice in many countries of Europe, North Africa and West, Central and South Asia. In the Mediterranean region, common coriander cultivation dates back to Ancient Egypt. The plant is mentioned in the Bible, where it is compared to manna. In Europe, common coriander has been known since the Middle Ages.
	Coriander fruits are an essential part of curry powder and Indian masalas (garam masala in the North and sambaar podi in the South) as well as part of Ethiopian berbere. Latin American cuisine also makes much use of them. Roasting or frying, practiced in India and Sri Lanka, enhances the flavour.
	Coriander leaves, also called "coriander greens", are popular across most of Asia. Used in China and India regionally, e.g. in Maharashtra, they are indispensable in Thailand. In Thai cuisine, coriander leaves are used to add additional flavour to soups, salads and curries, with Thai green curry paste using both root and leaves.
	The heartland of coriander leaf usage in South-East Asia is Vietnam. In South Vietnam, chopped coriander leaves appear as decorations on nearly every dish, sometimes combined with (or substituted by) peppermint or Vietnamese coriander. Coriander leaves are less enjoyed in Malaysia and Indonesia.
	Common coriander leaves resemble European parsley leaves in that they have a similar shape and are both best used raw, as the flavour vanishes after prolonged cooking. In both plants, the root has a similar flavour than the leaves and its flavour tolerates boiling or simmering much better.
	Drying destroys most of the fragrance of the leaves, yet dried coriander leaves are included in some versions of Georgian khmeli-suneli and of the Iranian ghorme herb mix. The plants develop leaves of two different shapes, base leaves being broad (similar to Italian parsley) and having the reputation of a better flavour. Leaves attached to the stems have a pinnate shape and their flavour is said to be less fresh.
	Arabic cooking makes use of both common coriander leaves and fruits. Zhoug, a spicy paste typical of Yemeni cuisine, is a recipe that contains coriander leaves (sometimes also fruits) with green chillies, garlic, cardamom and black pepper and optionally cumin, lemon juice and olive oil. Zhoug may be used as a relish, bread dip or condiment. A version of zhoug prepared with chillies is known as shatta, also an Arabic name for red chillies. Arabic spice mixtures containing coriander fruits alone are berbere from Ethiopia and baharat from the Gulf states.
	Use of common coriander leaves is also frequent in Latin America, especially Mexico in salsa and ceviche. Another famous Mexican food relying on coriander leaves is guacamole, a spicy coarse mash of avocado, chopped tomato, lime juice, onions, garlic, chilli and coriander leaves. For heat, Mexicans often use the green jalapeño or the slightly hotter serrano, but flavourful habanero or related chillies are also recommended.
	The Mexican herb epazote is sometimes substituted by coriander leaves, especially outside Mexico, even though the plants have little in common.
	Common coriander leaves are most often used raw as cooking or even short frying tends to diminish their fragrance. There are exceptions to that rule, with some Indian and Central Asian recipes using coriander leaves in large amounts cooked until they dissolve and their flavour mellows. An example is the Iranian sauce ghorme.
	Tasting common coriander leaves for the first time, many people from Europe and North America find their taste repulsive, a reaction that often changes after some period of exposure to the herb. The popularity of coriander leaf in Europe and the US has increased in recent years, with coriander now more appreciated in Europe than ever before due to interest in Asian food and the success of Thai and Vietnamese restaurants.

Coriander, Long

Long coriander is another herb that I yet have to experience the pleasure of trying.

Long coriander plants	Long coriander leaves and flower buds	Long coriander leaves

Species:	Eryngium foetidum.
Origin:	Caribbean.
Source:	The plant is native to the Caribbean islands and has been introduced to large parts of South-East Asia, including Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia.
Used Part:	Fresh leaves.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Aroma very similar to fresh common coriander leaves, but even stronger.
Etymology:	Long coriander is known as culantro and racao in Central America and the former is probably a variant of cilantroor "common coriander". Many names in languages spoken outside its natural habitat compare it to the common coriander, e.g. Thai pak chi farang "foreign coriander", Malay ketumbar Jawa "Javanese coriander", Hindi bhandhania "broad coriander" and Chinese ci yuan sui "prickly coriander".
	The Thai name pak chi farang may also mean "parsley" (which also deserves to be called "foreign coriander", the similarities being more visual than olfactory). The Thai term farang "foreign", "Western" or "European" is derived from the name of the Germanic Frank people. Due to their powerful position in Medieval Europe, the ethnonym was loaned to Arabic as ifranji and faranj "European", whence it spread Eastwards. Other examples of the "foreigner" root include Sanskrit phiranga, Kurdish farangi, Thai farang and Khmer barang. The English term "saw leaf herb", on the other hand, refers to the serrated leafs.
	The genus name eryngium is derived from the Greek name of the related sea holly eryngium vulgare, which was called eryngion and the name is probably related to er "spring time". The species name foetidum is Latin for "stinking" or "ugly".
Uses:	Long coriander belongs to the same plant family as common coriander, but the shape does not bear much resemblance. The long, tough leaves exude a fragrance very similar to the aroma of common coriander and they suggest themselves as substitutes or alternatives. Long coriander's usage concentrates on the Far East and Central America.
	In Asia, long coriander is most popular in Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore, where it is commonly used with or as a replacement for common coriander and topped over soups, noodle dishes and curries. It can also be used for Thai curry pastes, especially when common coriander roots are not available. Long coriander plays a role in the cooking of Vietnam, where fresh herbs are of great importance. It is often used to decorate soups and stir-fries and the largest leaves are used to wrap food.
	In Central America, long coriander is most associated with the cooking style of Puerto Rico, although it is also known in other Caribbean islands and in Eastern Mexico. Long coriander is found in salsa, a spicy sauce of varying composition that often provides extra spiciness for the main courses or is used as a dip and eaten with crisp-fried tortilla chips known as tostadas. Some popular Mexican recipes are salsa cruda made from jitomate "raw tomatoes", salsa de chilli rojo from ripe tomatoes and dried paprika, salsa verde based on tomatillos and salsas based on dried sweet almond with fruity ingredients and mild or hot chillies.
	Another Central American specialty that sometimes contains long coriander is the Latin American raw fish food ceviche.

Coriander, Vietnamese

So with a name like Vietnamese coriander, it's pretty obvious where this spice came from. But you'd be wrong - it's from the Caribbean. It must have been a tortuous route, but a long time ago it was imported from the West Indies to Southeast Asia (via the East Indies?)

Vietnamese coriander plants	Vietnamese coriander leaves and flower buds	Vietnamese coriander leaves

Species:	Polygonum odoratum.
Origin:	Caribbean.
Source:	The plant is native to the Caribbean islands and has been introduced to large parts of South-East Asia (particularly Vietnam, Malaysia and Indonesia).
Used Part:	Leaves, always used fresh.
Family:	Polygonaceae (knotweed family).
Effect:	The herb has a smell very similar to common coriander, but with a clear lemon citrus note. It is closely related to water pepper, but with far less pungency.
Etymology:	The genus name polygonum ("knotweed" in English) refers to the shape of the stem which is composed of many joints linked together by slightly bent "knots" or "knees" via the Greek polys "many" and gony "knee". Species name odoratum is Latin (from verb odorare) for "scented".
	Vietnamese coriander is known as rau ram in Vietnam. It is called laksa plant in Singapore and the Cantonese equivalent name laksa yip in China, these names reflecting the usage of Vietnamese coriander for the Chinese-Malaysian "noodle curry" laksa. This curry is named for its many ingredients as in the Hindi term lakh meaning "hundred thousand" or Sanskrit laksha "many". The term "Vietnamese mint" frequently found in English literature is botanical nonsense as peppermint is quite unrelated and belongs to a distant plant family, lamiaceae.
Uses:	Vietnamese coriander is one of the numerous herbs that give Vietnamese cuisine its unique touch. The herb is also used outside of Vietnam, appearing in Malaysian recipes and being typical of Singaporean cuisine.
	In Vietnam, especially the South, fresh herbs are a conditio sine qua non of food. A typical Southern Vietnamese noodle soup pho is based on broth (often from chicken, pork and/or fish) with a variety of ingredients including small meat pieces, boiled and raw vegetables, fish balls, young onion greens and fried garlic slices. The soup is served with lime wedges, mustard paste, fish sauce (nuoc mam), red chilli slices and herbs which are dipped into the soup. Most commonly used for this purpose is common coriander, followed by the long coriander and Vietnamese coriander varieties.
	In Malaysia, Vietnamese coriander is a common garnish for many kinds of foods, a typical example of which is the soupy noodle dish laksa, which is native to the entire Malaysian peninsula but most often associated with the cuisine of Singapore. Laksa is also known as nonya, in reference to people of mixed Malay and Chinese ancestry (also known as "Straits Chinese" whose settlement originated with the voyages of the Chinese admiral Zheng He in the 15th century.
	Singaporean laksa differs from related foods prepared in the peninsula mostly by the use of coconut milk, which turns the originally clear soup into a creamy, rich "curry" dish. Laksa is made from boiled meat (usually chicken), sea food (fish, crabs) and a variety of vegetables (bean sprouts, celery stalk, cucumber) seasoned with the spice paste bumbu made from lemon grass, fresh turmeric, greater galangale, chillies, garlic and shrimp paste, with chopped Vietnamese coriander sprinkled over liberally before serving.

Costmary

I've never used costmary, but given its characteristics I shall look out for it.

Costmary plants	Costmary inflorescence	Costmary leaves

Species:	Tanacetum balsamita.
Origin:	Western Asia.
Source:	Costmary has now become naturalised in many parts of Southern Europe. It became popular in more Northern latitudes in the Middle Ages, when it was grown in monasteries and Imperial gardens in accordance with Charlemagne's Capitulare de Villis. The plant was introduced into Britain in the 16th century and was soon found in almost every garden, but it has now gone so completely out of favour as to have become a rarity.
Used Part:	Leaves.
Family:	Asteraceae (daisy family).
Effect:	The whole of this plant emits a soft balsamic odour, reminiscent of tansy but pleasanter and more aromatic.
Etymology:	The common English name "costmary"(Middle English costmarie) derives from the Old English cost, from Latin costum and Greek kostos "costusroot" (a root used as a spice and preserve) and Marie "the Virgin Mary", in biblical reference. In the Middle Ages, the plant was widely associated with the name Mary and was known in France as herbe Sainte-Marie.
	Genus name tanacetum refers to the family relationship with tansy and species balsamita derives from Latin balsamum "balsam tree", originating from Old Hebrew bōshem denoting the balsam tree, but also meaning "fragrance" or "spice" in general. The plant has sometimes been erroneously called "mace" in English, this term being reserved for a spice derived from the nutmeg tree.
Uses:	On account of its aroma and the taste of its leaves, costmary was much used to give a spicy flavouring to ale (before being superseded by hops), a practice which gave rise to the English alternative name "alecost". The fresh leaves were also used in salads and in pottage and dried leaves were often included in pot-pourri, as they retain their aroma well. In an earlier age bundles of costmary were tied up with lavender and used as a domestic air freshener.
	Costmary was at one time employed medicinally, having somewhat astringent and antiseptic properties and use in treating dysentery. An ointment made by boiling the herb in olive oil with the woodland flower erythronium albidum "trout lily" and thickening the strained liquid with wax, resin and turpentine was considered to be very valuable for application to sores and ulcers.
	Costmary is closely related to tansy.

Cress, Garden

There was a time when sandwiches in Britain came in far fewer varieties than today - but one that was always to be found was egg and cress. The combination of green, peppery cress with scrambled egg remains a true classic.

Garden cress plants	Garden cress growing from seed	Garden cress leaves and stalks

Species:	Lepidium sativum.
Origin:	Probably Western or Central Asia.
Source:	Garden cress is native to much of Western and Central Asia, but is cultivated across the world. It is easy to cultivate as it tolerates nearly every climate.
Used Part:	Fresh leaves.
Family:	Brassicaceae (cabbage family).
Effect:	Garden cress and its relatives display a spicy aroma and a refreshing, peppery-pungent taste lasting only a few seconds. The aroma components are volatile and susceptible to both heat and moisture, so garden and other cresses are always used fresh and should not be boiled, baked or otherwise heated.
Etymology:	Botanical genus name lepidium derives via Old Latin from Greek lepidion, (diminutive of lepid-) "scale" or "flake", a reference to the tiny scale-like leaves. Species name sativum is Latin for "sown" or "cultivated". The Ancient Greeks used a plant with pungent leaves of Persian origin and the Greek name of the plant, kardamon was a loan from Persian. The word has survived in the form of kardamo as the modern Greek name of garden cress.
	A related genus is cardamine "bitter cress", a family including cardamine pratense "cuckoo flower" or "lady's smock". The English term "cress" (from Old English caerse) may be derived from a common source with Latvian griezīgs "sharp", or from the Indo-European root gres "devour", Old Norse kras "delicacy", Sanskrit grasati "he eats" and Greek gran "gnaw".
Uses:	Garden cress and other cresses are considered interchangeable in the kitchen and are popular in Europe and North America where they are used for spreads (especially those based on cottage cheese) and salads. Bread with butter and fresh cress leaves tastes delicious. Less frequently, chopped cress leaves are topped on warm dishes such as vegetable soups or scrambled eggs. Whenever used, cress turns an everyday dish into an exquisite delicacy.
	In Europe, garden cress leaves are not commonly combined with other fresh herbs but they are compatible with the fines herbes of French cuisine and may be used together with each of them. Leaves or flowers of nasturtium are commonly used to flavour herbal vinegar and cress is also very good for herb sauces.
	In West and Central Asia there are local culinary herbs with cress-like flavour for which Western cookbooks usually substitute garden cress (quite reasonably as garden cress actually stems from that region). It is used from Georgia and Azerbaijan in North-Western Asia to Iran in Central Asia and appears in Kazakh cooking as one of the few herbs supported by the Kazakh climate.
	The disadvantage of garden cress (as with other cresses) is that the leaves cannot be dried and thus are rarely traded. Garden cress grows easily and quickly in any garden with minimal effort, the plant ready for harvesting as little as a week after sowing. For fresh garden cress, growers use three planting areas or pots and sow in rotation.
	The Mediterranean herb rocket displays a cress-like pungency and a distinct, intense flavour making it suitable as a spicy alternative to cress. On the other hand, paracress (despite its name) is a quite different herb neither related botanically nor culinarily to any of the cresses.

Cress, Water

Don't be confused by the species name nasturtium officinale - water cress is closely related to garden cress and is a member of the cabbage (brassicaceae) family of brassicales, whereas nasturtium is the best known member of the quite different tropaeolaceae family. But they share an instant (if short-lived) peppery, tangy flavour.

Water cress plants	Water cress leaves and flowers	Water cress leaves

Species:	Nasturtium officinale.
Origin:	Unknown.
Source:	Water cress grows wild across Europe and was included by Charlemagne in his Capitulare de Villis as one of the herbs to be grown in his Imperial gardens and in monasteries. Although water cress is found wherever water is available, it is not grown commercially. Water cress is sometimes found in garden markets, originating from small-scale backyard cultivation or from collection in the wild.
Used Part:	Fresh leaves.
Family:	Brassicaceae (cabbage family).
Effect:	Water cress and its relatives display a spicy aroma and a refreshing, peppery-pungent taste lasting only a few seconds. The aroma of water cress is generally considered to be superior to that of other cresses The aroma components are volatile and susceptible to both heat and moisture, so garden and other cresses are always used fresh and should not be boiled, baked or otherwise heated.
Etymology:	For the origin of cress, see garden cress. Water cress bears in most languages an attribute meaning "water", "well" or "fountain" (Indonesian air, Finnish vesi, German wasser, Italian acqua, Russian voda, Greek nero, German brunnen and French fontain.
	The genus name "nasturtium" (used by the Romans for several cress-like plants and especially for garden cress) probably derives from nasi-tortium "nose pain" from nasus "nose" and the verb torquere "torment" and refers to the sharp, pungent aroma. Species name officinale refers to a "drug", "medicine" or "plant".
Uses:	Water cress and other cresses are considered interchangeable in the kitchen and are popular in Europe and North America where they are used for spreads (especially those based on cottage cheese) and salads. In Europe, cress leaves are not commonly combined with other fresh herbs but they are compatible with the fines herbes of French cuisine and may be used together with each of them.
	The disadvantages of water cress are that the plant must be gathered in the wild and the leaves cannot be dried and are only rarely traded. Hydroponic cultivation is possible but not commercially viable.

Cumin

Cumin, or jeera in Hindi and Bengali (as I was brought up to refer to it), is the archetypal Indian spice. Although mostly used in combination with other spices, cumin is an essential ingredient in so many recipes and is becoming increasingly widely used in European kitchens.

Cumin plants in flower	Cumin flowers and fruits	Cumin fruits (often incorrectly named "cumin seeds"	Ground cumin

Species:	Cuminum cyminum.
Origin:	Western Asia.
Source:	The main production territories today are India, Iran, Indonesia, China and the countries of the Southern Mediterranean.
Used Part:	Fruits (frequently incorrectly called "seeds").
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	Strongly aromatic, with a characteristic aroma that is subtly modified by frying or dry roasting.
Etymology:	The English name "cumin" originates from Latin cuminum, loaned from Greek kyminon. There may also be a Semitic origin: cf. Old Hebrew kammōn and Egyptian kamnini. Modern Semitic tongues often show similar forms, e.g. Arabic kamoun, Hebrew kamoon and Amharic kemun. Similar names are common in many European languages, e.g. Portuguese cominho, Lithuanian kuminai, Basque komino and Greek kimino, as well as Chinese ku-ming.
	Confusingly, many languages have similar names signifying not cumin but caraway, e.g. Russian tmin, Ukrainian kmyn and Bulgarian kim. Confusion between cumin and caraway has a long record in German-speaking countries, where caraway is known as kümmel. The German for cumin, however, kreuzkümmel "cross-caraway" indicates that German cooks see cumin as an exotic variety of caraway which appears like a cross when viewed along the stalk axis.
	In most countries of Northern and Eastern Europe, cumin is of little importance as a flavouring and consequently is seen as a foreign spice comparable to, but distinct from, the native spice caraway "foreign caraway". Cumin is often named as a foreign or oriental variety of caraway, e.g. Romanian chimion Turcesc "Eastern caraway", Slovenian orientalske kumin "oriental cumin" and Hungarian Egyiptomi kömény "Egyptian caraway". In countries where cumin is favoured, the same system works in the opposite direction, with caraway named "German cumin" or similar.
	Although cumin has little use in Italian cuisine, it is named "Roman caraway" in many European languages: (Russian Rimskij tmin, Finnish Roomankumina and Czech Římský kmín). These names refer to the fact that cumin became known in Northern Europe during the Middle Ages as a result of Charlemagne's herb edict Capitulare de Villis, which led to cumin being viewed as a "Mediterranean" or "Italian" type of the native caraway.
	In Sanskrit names of cumin appear related to the root jri signifying "cause decay" or "consume". The root jri may also mean "digest", which could refer to the digestive properties of cumin. Related words for cumin are today found from the Caucasus to Central Asia to South-East Asia, e.g. Georgian dzira, Azeri cirə, Kazakh zere, Farsi zireh, Urdu zirah, Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali jeera or jira, Tamil jiragam, Thai yeera and Chinese ziran. Sanskrit sughanda "cumin" (also used for other aromatics including marjoram, lime, zedoary, civet and lotus) means "well-smelling", indicating that cumin was highly popular in Ancient India.
	In Chinese herbal medicine, cumin is commonly referred to as xiao hui xiang "little fennel", which is the opposite of fennel being named as "sweet cumin" in several South and South-East Asian tongues.
Uses:	Cumin is a popular spice all over the world, especially in Latin America, North Africa and Asia, and is generally referred to by the English term "cumin". Although a common spice at the time of the Roman Empire, cumin usage in Europe (apart from making curries) is now limited to flavouring cheese in the Netherlands and France.
	Cumin is one of the most typical Indian spices, especially in the South. The fruits are used whole, fried (frequently with onion) or dry-roasted before use. Lentils and other legumes are normally flavoured by cumin fried in ghee butter fat. The seeds form an important part of curry powder and of the Bengali spice mixture panch phoron and cumin is essential for the preparation of North Indian tandoori dishes. The fragrance of roasted cumin, typically in combination with common coriander is characteristic of South Indian and Sri Lankan cuisine.
	Another important Indian spice mixture containing cumin is garam masala which means "hot mixture". Garam masala may contain almost every Indian spice, but the basic taste results from roasted cumin, coriander, black pepper and bay leaf ground together with smaller amounts of sweet spices (cinnamon, cloves, cardamom seeds and nutmeg). In the Imperial North Indian Mogul cuisine the mixture muglai garam masala is prepared predominantly of sweet-aromatic spices. This spice mixture is sometimes used for cooking, but more frequently sprinkled over the dishes before serving.
	In South India, a popular spice mixture called sambar podi "sambar powder" is prepared to flavour thin lentil curry saambaar, traditionally served with dosai (pancake-like bread made from rice flour), or iddli (steamed dumplings of fermented rice and bean dough). The base component of sambaar podi is urad dhal (lentils dry-roasted or toasted until they lose their raw flavour). These are mixed with roast spices (cumin, coriander, fenugreek, black pepper, mustard seeds, chillies and asafoetida. The powder is added, together with fresh curry leaves, to boiling curries. Similar spice mixtures are also much in use among the descendants of South Indian immigrants in Malaysia or Singapore.
	Black cumin is the fruit of a related plant that grows wild in Iran and in Kashmir. It is sometimes preferred to normal cumin for North Indian meat kormas. Cumin is also used in India to flavour lassi (yoghurt drinks).
	Cumin is very popular in Western to Central Asia. Spice mixtures from this region featuring cumin are Yemeni zhoug and Saudi-Arabian baharat. Cumin is also typical of the tagines (meat stews) of Arab-influenced North Africa.
	In South-Eastern and Eastern Asia, cumin is less valued but used occasionally, but it is very important for Burmese cooking and plays a role in the cooking of Thailand and Indonesia.
	In Central and South American cooking, cumin is an important spice that appears in Mexican and similar spice mixtures.

Cumin, Black

I've not yet experienced black cumin, so it's another spice I look forward to trying.

Black cumin plants	Black cumin fruits (often incorrectly named "black cumin seeds"	Ground black cumin

Species:	Bunium persicum.
Origin:	Central Asia.
Source:	The plant is found wild from Central Asia to North India. There is considerable confusion about this spice, particularly in older literature. It is sometimes incorrectly referred to botanically as carum bulbocastanum or cuminum nigrum.
Used Part:	Fruits. Both the dark brown colour and the slender crescent shape are characteristic. In Kashmir the root is eaten as a vegetable.
Family:	Apiaceae (parsley family).
Effect:	The aroma of the raw fruits is earthy and heavy and not at all pleasant. On frying or roasting the taste changes and becomes nutty.
Etymology:	For the etymology of black cumin, see cumin. The derivation of Latin genus name bunium is uncertain, but it may derive from Sanskrit vnija "merchant" via the Hindi baniyā. Species name persicum is Latin for "Persian", a reference to the supposed origin of the plant. The modern Hindi Shahi jeera "Imperial cumin" refers to the popularity of black cumin in the Mogul cuisine of North India.
	Similar names in Arabic refer to a quite different spice, ajwain. Kashmir is the only region in India where black cumin is grown and the name Kashmiri jeera refers to the plant from this region where the Mogul Emperors spent their summers to escape the heat of the Indian plains. A similar derivation applies to the Nepali Himali jira "Himalayan cumin". The most common Indic name for this spice is kala jeera "black cumin", a name sometimes given to the entirely unrelated spice nigella which is popular in the Middle East and Bengal.
Uses:	Black cumin (in India also called Kashmiri cumin) is not much known outside Iran, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and the Western part of North India (Kashmir and Punjab). It is preferred to ordinary cumin for some Indian meat dishes (kormas) and rice dishes (biryanis) but if unavailable, toasted cumin is an acceptable alternative.